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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce, wraps
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20    G = t.TypeVar("G", bound="Generator")
  21    GeneratorMethod = t.Callable[[G, E], str]
  22
  23logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  24
  25ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  26UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
  27
  28
  29def unsupported_args(
  30    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
  31) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
  32    """
  33    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
  34    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
  35    """
  36    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
  37    for arg in args:
  38        if isinstance(arg, str):
  39            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
  40        else:
  41            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
  42
  43    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
  44        @wraps(func)
  45        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
  46            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
  47            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
  48
  49            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
  50                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
  51                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
  52                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
  53                    )
  54                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
  55
  56            return func(generator, expression)
  57
  58        return _func
  59
  60    return decorator
  61
  62
  63class _Generator(type):
  64    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  65        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  66
  67        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  68        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  69            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  70
  71        return klass
  72
  73
  74class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  75    """
  76    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  77
  78    Args:
  79        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  80            Default: False.
  81        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  82            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  83            True or 'always': Always quote.
  84            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  85        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  86            Default: False.
  87        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  88            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  89            Default: 2.
  90        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  91            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  92            Default: 2.
  93        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  94            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  95            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  96            False: Disables function name normalization.
  97        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  98            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  99        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 100            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 101            Default: 3
 102        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 103            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 104            Default: False
 105        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 106            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 107            line length.
 108            Default: 80
 109        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 110            Default: True
 111    """
 112
 113    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 114        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 115        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 116        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 117        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 118        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 119        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 122        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 123        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 125        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 128        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 132        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 135        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 136        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 138        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 139        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 140        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 141        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 142        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 143        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 144        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 145        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 146        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 150        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 151        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 152        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 153        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 155        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 156        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 157        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 158        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 159        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 160        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 161        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 162        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 163        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 165        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 166        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 169        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 170        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 171        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 172        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 173            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 174        ),
 175        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 176        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 177        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 178        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 179        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 180        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 181        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 182        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 183        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 184        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 185        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 186        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 187        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 188        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 189        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 190        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 191        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 192        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 193        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 195        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 196        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 197        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 198        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 199        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 200        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 201        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 202        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 203        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 204        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 205        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 206        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 207        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 208    }
 209
 210    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 211    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 212    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 213    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 214
 215    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 216    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 217    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 218
 219    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 220    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 221
 222    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 223    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 224
 225    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 226    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 227
 228    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 229    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 230
 231    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 232    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 233
 234    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 235    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 236
 237    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 238    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 239
 240    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 241    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 242
 243    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 244    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 245
 246    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 247    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 248
 249    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 250    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 251
 252    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 253    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 254
 255    # Whether join hints should be generated
 256    JOIN_HINTS = True
 257
 258    # Whether table hints should be generated
 259    TABLE_HINTS = True
 260
 261    # Whether query hints should be generated
 262    QUERY_HINTS = True
 263
 264    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 265    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 266
 267    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 268    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 269
 270    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 271    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 272
 273    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 274    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 275
 276    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 277    RETURNING_END = True
 278
 279    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 280    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 281
 282    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 283    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 284
 285    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 286    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 287
 288    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 289    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 290
 291    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 292    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 293    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 294    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 295
 296    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 297    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 298
 299    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 300    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 301
 302    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 303    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 304
 305    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 306    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 307
 308    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 309    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 310
 311    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 312    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 313
 314    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 315    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 316
 317    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 318    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 319
 320    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 321    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 322
 323    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 324    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 325
 326    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 327    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 328
 329    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 330    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 331
 332    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 333    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 334
 335    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 336    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 337
 338    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 339    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 340
 341    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 342    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 343
 344    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 345    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 346
 347    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 348    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 349
 350    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 351    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 352
 353    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 354    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 355
 356    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 357    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 358
 359    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 360    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 361
 362    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 363    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 364
 365    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 366    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 367
 368    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 369    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 370
 371    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 372    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 373    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 374
 375    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 376    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 377
 378    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 379    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 380
 381    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 382    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 383
 384    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 385    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 386
 387    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 388    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 389
 390    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 391    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 392
 393    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 394    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 395    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 396    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 397
 398    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 399    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 400
 401    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 402    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 403
 404    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 405    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 406
 407    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 408    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 409
 410    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 411    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 412
 413    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 414    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 415
 416    # The HEX function name
 417    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 418
 419    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 420    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 421
 422    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 423    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 424
 425    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 426    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 427
 428    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 429    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 430
 431    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 432    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 433
 434    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 435    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 436
 437    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 438    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 439
 440    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 441    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 442
 443    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 444    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 445
 446    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 447    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 448
 449    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 450    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 451    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 452    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 453    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 454
 455    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 456        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 457        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 468    }
 469
 470    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 471        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 472        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 473        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 474        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 475        "DAYS": "DAY",
 476        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 477        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 478        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 479        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 480    }
 481
 482    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 483        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 484        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 485        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 486        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 487            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 488            if e.args.get("windows")
 489            else ""
 490        ),
 491        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 492    }
 493
 494    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 495
 496    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 497
 498    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 499    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 500
 501    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 502
 503    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 504        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 512        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 519        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 520        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 521        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 524        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 525        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 528        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 529        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 531        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 532        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 533        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 534        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 535        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 536        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 537        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 538        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 539        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 541        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 543        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 547        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 548        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 549        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 550        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 551        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 552        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 553        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 554        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 556        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 557        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 559        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 560        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 567        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 568        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 572        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 573        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 574        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 575        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 576        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 578        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 579        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 580        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 581        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 582        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 583        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 584        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 585        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 586        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 588        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 589        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 590        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 591        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 592        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 593        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595    }
 596
 597    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 598    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 599
 600    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 601    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 602        exp.Command,
 603        exp.Create,
 604        exp.Describe,
 605        exp.Delete,
 606        exp.Drop,
 607        exp.From,
 608        exp.Insert,
 609        exp.Join,
 610        exp.MultitableInserts,
 611        exp.Select,
 612        exp.SetOperation,
 613        exp.Update,
 614        exp.Where,
 615        exp.With,
 616    )
 617
 618    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 619    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 620        exp.Binary,
 621        exp.SetOperation,
 622    )
 623
 624    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 625    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 626        exp.Column,
 627        exp.Literal,
 628        exp.Neg,
 629        exp.Paren,
 630    )
 631
 632    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 633        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 634        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 635        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 636        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 637    }
 638
 639    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 640    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 641
 642    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 643
 644    __slots__ = (
 645        "pretty",
 646        "identify",
 647        "normalize",
 648        "pad",
 649        "_indent",
 650        "normalize_functions",
 651        "unsupported_level",
 652        "max_unsupported",
 653        "leading_comma",
 654        "max_text_width",
 655        "comments",
 656        "dialect",
 657        "unsupported_messages",
 658        "_escaped_quote_end",
 659        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 660        "_next_name",
 661        "_identifier_start",
 662        "_identifier_end",
 663        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 664    )
 665
 666    def __init__(
 667        self,
 668        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 669        identify: str | bool = False,
 670        normalize: bool = False,
 671        pad: int = 2,
 672        indent: int = 2,
 673        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 674        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 675        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 676        leading_comma: bool = False,
 677        max_text_width: int = 80,
 678        comments: bool = True,
 679        dialect: DialectType = None,
 680    ):
 681        import sqlglot
 682        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 683
 684        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 685        self.identify = identify
 686        self.normalize = normalize
 687        self.pad = pad
 688        self._indent = indent
 689        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 690        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 691        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 692        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 693        self.comments = comments
 694        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 695
 696        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 697        self.normalize_functions = (
 698            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 699        )
 700
 701        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 702        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 703            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 704        )
 705        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 706
 707        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 708
 709        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 710        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 711
 712        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 713
 714    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 715        """
 716        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 717
 718        Args:
 719            expression: The syntax tree.
 720            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 721                it is safer to copy.
 722
 723        Returns:
 724            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 725        """
 726        if copy:
 727            expression = expression.copy()
 728
 729        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 730
 731        self.unsupported_messages = []
 732        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 733
 734        if self.pretty:
 735            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 736
 737        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 738            return sql
 739
 740        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 741            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 742                logger.warning(msg)
 743        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 744            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 745
 746        return sql
 747
 748    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 749        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 750        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 751
 752        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 753            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 754
 755            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 756
 757        return expression
 758
 759    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 760        if (
 761            not expression.parent
 762            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 763            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 764        ):
 765            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 766
 767            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 768        return expression
 769
 770    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 771        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 772            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 773        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 774
 775    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 776        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 777
 778    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 779        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 780
 781    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 782        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 783        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 784        return comment
 785
 786    def maybe_comment(
 787        self,
 788        sql: str,
 789        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 790        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 791        separated: bool = False,
 792    ) -> str:
 793        comments = (
 794            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 795            if self.comments
 796            else None
 797        )
 798
 799        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 800            return sql
 801
 802        comments_sql = " ".join(
 803            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 804        )
 805
 806        if not comments_sql:
 807            return sql
 808
 809        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 810
 811        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 812            return (
 813                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 814                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 815                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 816            )
 817
 818        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 819
 820    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 821        this_sql = (
 822            self.sql(expression)
 823            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 824            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        )
 826        if not this_sql:
 827            return "()"
 828
 829        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 830        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 831
 832    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 833        original = self.identify
 834        self.identify = False
 835        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 836        self.identify = original
 837        return result
 838
 839    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 840        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 841            return name.upper()
 842        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 843            return name.lower()
 844        return name
 845
 846    def indent(
 847        self,
 848        sql: str,
 849        level: int = 0,
 850        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 851        skip_first: bool = False,
 852        skip_last: bool = False,
 853    ) -> str:
 854        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 855            return sql
 856
 857        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 858        lines = sql.split("\n")
 859
 860        return "\n".join(
 861            (
 862                line
 863                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 864                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 865            )
 866            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 867        )
 868
 869    def sql(
 870        self,
 871        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 872        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 873        comment: bool = True,
 874    ) -> str:
 875        if not expression:
 876            return ""
 877
 878        if isinstance(expression, str):
 879            return expression
 880
 881        if key:
 882            value = expression.args.get(key)
 883            if value:
 884                return self.sql(value)
 885            return ""
 886
 887        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 888
 889        if callable(transform):
 890            sql = transform(self, expression)
 891        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 892            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 893
 894            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 895                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 896            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 897                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 898            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 899                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 900            else:
 901                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 902        else:
 903            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 904
 905        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 906
 907    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 908        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 910        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 911
 912    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 913        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 914        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 915        options = expression.args.get("options")
 916        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 917        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 918        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 919        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 920        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 921
 922    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 923        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 924            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 925        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 926        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 927
 928    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 929        return ".".join(
 930            self.sql(part)
 931            for part in (
 932                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 933                expression.args.get("db"),
 934                expression.args.get("table"),
 935                expression.args.get("this"),
 936            )
 937            if part
 938        )
 939
 940    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 941        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 942
 943        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 944            join_mark = ""
 945            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 946
 947        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 948
 949    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 951        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 952        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 953        return f"{position}{this}"
 954
 955    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 956        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 957        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 958        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 959        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 960        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 961        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 962        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 963        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 964
 965        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 966            kind = ""
 967
 968        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 969
 970    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 973        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 974
 975    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 977        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 978            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 979        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 980            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 981        else:
 982            persisted = ""
 983        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 984
 985    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 986        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 987
 988    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 989        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 990            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 991        else:
 992            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 993
 994        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 995
 996    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 997        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 998    ) -> str:
 999        this = ""
1000        if expression.this is not None:
1001            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1002            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1003
1004        start = expression.args.get("start")
1005        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1006        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1007        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1008        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1009        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1010        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1011        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1012        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1013        cycle_sql = ""
1014
1015        if cycle is not None:
1016            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1017            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1018
1019        sequence_opts = ""
1020        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1021            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1022            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1023
1024        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1025        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1026
1027        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1028
1029    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1030        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1031    ) -> str:
1032        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1033        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1034        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1035
1036    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1037        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1038    ) -> str:
1039        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1040
1041    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1042        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1043
1044    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1045        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1046
1047    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1048        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1049        if desc is not None:
1050            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1051        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1052
1053    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1054        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1055        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1056        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1057        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1058        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1059        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1060        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1061        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1062
1063    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1064        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1065
1066    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1067        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1068        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1069        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1070        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1071
1072        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1073
1074        properties_sql = ""
1075        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1076            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1077        ):
1078            properties_sql = self.sql(
1079                exp.Properties(
1080                    expressions=[
1081                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1082                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1083                    ]
1084                )
1085            )
1086
1087            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1088                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1089            elif not self.pretty:
1090                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1091                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1092
1093        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1094        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1095
1096        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1097        if expression_sql:
1098            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1099
1100            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1101                postalias_props_sql = ""
1102                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1103                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1104                        exp.Properties(
1105                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1106                        ),
1107                        wrapped=False,
1108                    )
1109                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1110                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1111
1112        postindex_props_sql = ""
1113        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1114            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1115                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1116                wrapped=False,
1117                prefix=" ",
1118            )
1119
1120        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1121        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1122        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1123
1124        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1125        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1126        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1127
1128        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1129        if clustered is None:
1130            clustered_sql = ""
1131        elif clustered:
1132            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1133        else:
1134            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1135
1136        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1137        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1138            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1139                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1140                sep=" ",
1141                prefix=" ",
1142                wrapped=False,
1143            )
1144
1145        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1146
1147        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1148        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1149            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1150                exp.Properties(
1151                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1152                ),
1153                sep=" ",
1154                prefix=" ",
1155                wrapped=False,
1156            )
1157
1158        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1159        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1160        no_schema_binding = (
1161            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1162        )
1163
1164        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1165        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1166
1167        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1168            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1169        else:
1170            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1171
1172        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1173        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1174
1175    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1176        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1177        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1178        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1179        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1180        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1181        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1182        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1183        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1184        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1185        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1186
1187        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1188        if cache is None:
1189            cache_str = ""
1190        elif cache is True:
1191            cache_str = " CACHE"
1192        else:
1193            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1194
1195        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1196        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1197
1198        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1199
1200    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1201        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1202        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1203        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1204        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1205
1206    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1207        style = expression.args.get("style")
1208        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1209        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1210        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1211        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1212        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1213
1214        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1215
1216    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1217        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1218        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1219
1220    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1221        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1222        if with_:
1223            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1224        return sql
1225
1226    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1227        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1228        recursive = (
1229            "RECURSIVE "
1230            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1231            else ""
1232        )
1233
1234        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1235
1236    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1237        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1238        if alias:
1239            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1240
1241        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1242
1243        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1244        if materialized is False:
1245            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1246        elif materialized:
1247            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1248
1249        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1250
1251    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1252        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1253        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1254        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1255
1256        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1257            columns = ""
1258            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1259
1260        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1261            alias = self._next_name()
1262
1263        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1264
1265    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1268            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1269        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1270
1271    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1272        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1273        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1274            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1275        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1276
1277    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1279        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1280            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1281        return this
1282
1283    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1284        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1285        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1286
1287        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1288            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1289            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1290        else:
1291            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1292            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1293
1294        if escape:
1295            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1296            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1297        else:
1298            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1299            escape_sql = ""
1300
1301        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1302            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1303
1304        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1305
1306    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1307        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1308        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1309
1310    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1311        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1312        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1313        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1314        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1315
1316    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1317        nested = ""
1318        values = ""
1319        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1320
1321        type_value = expression.this
1322        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1323            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1324        else:
1325            type_sql = (
1326                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1327                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1328                else type_value
1329            )
1330
1331        if interior:
1332            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1333                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1334                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1335                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1336                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1337                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1338            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1339                nested = f" {interior}"
1340            else:
1341                nested = f"({interior})"
1342
1343        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1344        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1345            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1346            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1347        ):
1348            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1349
1350        return type_sql
1351
1352    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1353        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1354        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1355        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1356        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1357
1358    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1360        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1361        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1362        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1363        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1364        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1365        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1366        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1367        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1368        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1369        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1370        if self.RETURNING_END:
1371            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1372        else:
1373            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1374        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1375
1376    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1377        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1378        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1379        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1380        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1381        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1382        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1383        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1384        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1385        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1386        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1387        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1388        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1389        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1390        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1391        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1392
1393    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1394        op_type = type(expression)
1395        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1396
1397        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1398        if (
1399            distinct is False
1400            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1401            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1402        ):
1403            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1404
1405        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1406
1407        if distinct is None:
1408            distinct = default_distinct
1409            if distinct is None:
1410                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1411
1412        if distinct is default_distinct:
1413            kind = ""
1414        else:
1415            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1416
1417        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1418        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1419
1420    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1421        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1422            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1423            order = expression.args.get("order")
1424
1425            if limit or order:
1426                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1427                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1428                )
1429
1430                if limit:
1431                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1432                if order:
1433                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1434                return self.sql(select)
1435
1436        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1437        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1438
1439        while stack:
1440            node = stack.pop()
1441
1442            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1443                stack.append(node.expression)
1444                stack.append(
1445                    self.maybe_comment(
1446                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1447                    )
1448                )
1449                stack.append(node.this)
1450            else:
1451                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1452
1453        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1454        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1455        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1456
1457    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1458        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1459        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1460        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1461        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1462        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1463            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1464        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1465        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1466
1467    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1468        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1469            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1471            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1472
1473        agg = expression.this
1474        agg_arg = agg.this
1475        cond = expression.expression.this
1476        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1477        return self.sql(agg)
1478
1479    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1480        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1481            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1482            return ""
1483
1484        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1485
1486    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1487        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1488        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1489        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1490        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1491        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1492        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1493        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1494        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1495        if include:
1496            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1497        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1498        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1499        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1500        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1501        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1502        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1503
1504        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1505
1506    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1507        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1508        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1509        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1510        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1511        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1512        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1513        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1514
1515        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1516
1517        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1518        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1519
1520    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1521        text = expression.name
1522        lower = text.lower()
1523        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1524        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1525        if (
1526            expression.quoted
1527            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1528            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1529            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1530        ):
1531            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1532        return text
1533
1534    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1535        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1536        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1537            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1538
1539        return text
1540
1541    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1542        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1543        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1544            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1545        return text
1546
1547    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1548        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1549        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1550        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1551        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1552        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1553
1554    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1555        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1556        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1557
1558    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1559        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1560
1561    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1562        root_properties = []
1563        with_properties = []
1564
1565        for p in expression.expressions:
1566            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1567            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1568                with_properties.append(p)
1569            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1570                root_properties.append(p)
1571
1572        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1573        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1574
1575        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1576            with_props = " " + with_props
1577
1578        return root_props + with_props
1579
1580    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1581        if properties.expressions:
1582            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1583        return ""
1584
1585    def properties(
1586        self,
1587        properties: exp.Properties,
1588        prefix: str = "",
1589        sep: str = ", ",
1590        suffix: str = "",
1591        wrapped: bool = True,
1592    ) -> str:
1593        if properties.expressions:
1594            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1595            if expressions:
1596                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1597                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1598        return ""
1599
1600    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1601        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1602
1603    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1604        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1605        for p in properties.expressions:
1606            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1607            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1608                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1609            else:
1610                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1611
1612        return properties_locs
1613
1614    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1615        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1616            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1617        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1618
1619    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1620        property_cls = expression.__class__
1621        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1622            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1623
1624        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1625        if not property_name:
1626            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1627
1628        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1629
1630    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1631        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1632            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1633            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1634
1635            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1636            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1637                like = f"({like})"
1638
1639            return like
1640
1641        if expression.expressions:
1642            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1643
1644        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1645        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1646
1647    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1648        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1649        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1650        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1651
1652    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1653        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1654        local = expression.args.get("local")
1655        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1656        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1657        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1658        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1659        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1660
1661    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1662        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1663        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1664        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1665
1666    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1667        if expression.args.get("default"):
1668            property = "DEFAULT"
1669        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1670            property = "ON"
1671        else:
1672            property = "OFF"
1673        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1674
1675    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1676        if expression.args.get("no"):
1677            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1678        if expression.args.get("default"):
1679            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1680
1681        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1682        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1683
1684    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1685        default = expression.args.get("default")
1686        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1687        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1688        if default or minimum or maximum:
1689            if default:
1690                prop = "DEFAULT"
1691            elif minimum:
1692                prop = "MINIMUM"
1693            else:
1694                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1695            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1696        units = expression.args.get("units")
1697        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1698        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1699
1700    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1701        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1702        always = expression.args.get("always")
1703        default = expression.args.get("default")
1704        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1705        never = expression.args.get("never")
1706
1707        if autotemp is not None:
1708            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1709        elif always:
1710            prop = "ALWAYS"
1711        elif default:
1712            prop = "DEFAULT"
1713        elif manual:
1714            prop = "MANUAL"
1715        elif never:
1716            prop = "NEVER"
1717        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1718
1719    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1720        no = expression.args.get("no")
1721        no = " NO" if no else ""
1722        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1723        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1724        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1725        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1726        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1727
1728    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1729        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1730            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1731        if expression.this:
1732            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1733            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1734            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1735
1736        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1737        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1738        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1739
1740    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1741        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1742
1743        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1744        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1745            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1746        else:
1747            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1748
1749        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1750
1751    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1752        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1753        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1754        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1755        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1756        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1757        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1758        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1759
1760    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1761        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1762        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1763        statistics_sql = ""
1764        if statistics is not None:
1765            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1766        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1767
1768    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1769        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1770        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1771        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1772        data_consistency = (
1773            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1774        )
1775        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1776        retention_period = (
1777            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1778        )
1779
1780        if this:
1781            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1782        else:
1783            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1784
1785        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1786
1787        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1788
1789    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1790        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1791        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1792
1793        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1794            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1795        else:
1796            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1797
1798        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1799        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1800        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1801        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1802        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1803        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1804        if is_function:
1805            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1806        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1807
1808        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1809        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1810        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1811        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1812        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1813        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1814        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1815        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1816
1817        if self.RETURNING_END:
1818            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1819        else:
1820            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1821
1822        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1823        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1824        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1825        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1826
1827        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1828        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1829
1830        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1831        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1832
1833    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1834        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1835
1836    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1837        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1838        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1839        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1840        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1841        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1842
1843    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1844        return expression.name
1845
1846    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1847        return expression.name
1848
1849    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1850        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1851
1852        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1853        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1854
1855        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1856        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1857        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1858
1859        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1860        if expressions:
1861            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1862            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1863
1864        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1865        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1866
1867    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1868        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1869
1870    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1871        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1872        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1873        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1874        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1875        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1876        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1877        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1878        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1879        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1880        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1881        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1882        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1883        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1884
1885    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1886        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1887
1888    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1889        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1890        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1891        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1892        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1893
1894    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1896        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1897        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1898        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1899
1900    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1901        return ".".join(
1902            self.sql(part)
1903            for part in (
1904                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1905                expression.args.get("db"),
1906                expression.args.get("this"),
1907            )
1908            if part is not None
1909        )
1910
1911    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1912        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1913        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1914        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1915        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1916        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1917        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1918        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1919        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1920
1921        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1922        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1923            sample_pre_alias = sample
1924            sample_post_alias = ""
1925        else:
1926            sample_pre_alias = ""
1927            sample_post_alias = sample
1928
1929        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1930        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1931        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1932        joins = self.indent(
1933            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1934        )
1935        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1936
1937        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1938        if file_format:
1939            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1940            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1941            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1942
1943        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1944        if ordinality:
1945            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1946            alias = ""
1947
1948        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1949        if when:
1950            table = f"{table} {when}"
1951
1952        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1953        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1954
1955        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1956        if rows_from:
1957            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1958
1959        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1960
1961    def tablesample_sql(
1962        self,
1963        expression: exp.TableSample,
1964        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1965    ) -> str:
1966        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1967        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1968        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1969        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1970        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1971        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1972        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1973        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1974        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1975
1976        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1977        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1978            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1979
1980        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1981        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1982            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1983
1984        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1985        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1986            expr = f"({expr})"
1987
1988        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1989
1990    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1991        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1992        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1993
1994        if expression.this:
1995            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1996            if not expressions:
1997                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1998
1999            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2000            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2001            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2002            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2003            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2004            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2005            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2006
2007        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2008        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2009
2010        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2011
2012        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2013        if include_nulls is not None:
2014            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2015        else:
2016            nulls = ""
2017
2018        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2019        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2020        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2021
2022    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2023        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2024        kind = expression.text("kind")
2025        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2026        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2027
2028    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2029        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2030
2031    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2034        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2035        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2036        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2037        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2038        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2039        if self.RETURNING_END:
2040            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2041        else:
2042            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2043        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2044        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2045
2046    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2047        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2048
2049        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2050        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2051            args = self.expressions(expression)
2052            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2053            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2054            values = (
2055                f"({values})"
2056                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2057                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2058                else values
2059            )
2060            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2061
2062        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2063        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2064        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2065
2066        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2067
2068        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2069            row = tup.expressions
2070
2071            if i == 0 and column_names:
2072                row = [
2073                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2074                ]
2075
2076            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2077
2078        if self.pretty:
2079            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2080            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2081            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2082            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2083            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2084
2085        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2086        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2087        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2088
2089    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2090        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2091
2092    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2093    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2094        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2095        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2096        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2097
2098    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2099        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2100
2101    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2102        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2103        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2104
2105    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2106        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2107        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2108
2109    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2110        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2111        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2112
2113    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2114        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2115        if group_by_all is True:
2116            modifier = " ALL"
2117        elif group_by_all is False:
2118            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2119        else:
2120            modifier = ""
2121
2122        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2123
2124        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2125        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2126        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2127
2128        groupings = csv(
2129            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2130            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2131            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2132            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2133            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2134        )
2135
2136        if (
2137            expression.expressions
2138            and groupings
2139            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2140        ):
2141            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2142
2143        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2144
2145    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2146        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2147        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2148
2149    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2150        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2151        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2152        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2153        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2154        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2155        return start + connect
2156
2157    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2158        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2159
2160    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2161        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2162            side = None
2163        else:
2164            side = expression.side
2165
2166        op_sql = " ".join(
2167            op
2168            for op in (
2169                expression.method,
2170                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2171                side,
2172                expression.kind,
2173                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2174            )
2175            if op
2176        )
2177        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2178        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2179        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2180        using = expression.args.get("using")
2181
2182        if not on_sql and using:
2183            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2184
2185        this = expression.this
2186        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2187
2188        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2189        if exprs:
2190            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2191
2192        if on_sql:
2193            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2194            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2195            if using:
2196                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2197            else:
2198                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2199        elif not op_sql:
2200            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2201                return f" {this_sql}"
2202
2203            return f", {this_sql}"
2204
2205        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2206            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2207
2208        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2209
2210    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2211        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2212        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2213        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2214
2215    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2216        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2217
2218        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2219        if cross_apply is True:
2220            op = "INNER JOIN "
2221        elif cross_apply is False:
2222            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2223        else:
2224            op = ""
2225
2226        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2227
2228    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2230
2231        if expression.args.get("view"):
2232            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2233            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2234            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2235            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2236            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2237            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2238
2239        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2240        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2241        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2242
2243    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2245
2246        args = [
2247            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2248            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2249            if e
2250        ]
2251
2252        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2253        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2254        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2255        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2256
2257        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2258
2259    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2260        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2261        value = expression.expression
2262        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2263        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2264        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2265        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2266
2267    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2268        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2269        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2271        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2272        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2273        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2274        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2275        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2276
2277    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2278        expressions = (
2279            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2280        )
2281        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2282        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2283
2284    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2285        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2286
2287    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2288        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2289            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2290            return ""
2291
2292        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2293        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2294        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2295        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2296
2297        if wait is not None:
2298            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2299                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2300            else:
2301                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2302
2303        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2304
2305    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2306        text = expression.this or ""
2307        if expression.is_string:
2308            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2309        return text
2310
2311    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2312        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2313            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2314            text = "".join(
2315                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2316            )
2317
2318        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2319            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2320        )
2321
2322    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2323        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2324        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2325        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2326        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2327        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2328        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2329        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2330        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2331        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2332        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2333        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2334
2335    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2336        return "NULL"
2337
2338    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2339        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2340
2341    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2343        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2344        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2345        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2346
2347    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2348        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2349        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2350        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2351        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2352        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2353        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2354        interpolated_values = [
2355            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2356            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2357            else self.sql(e, "this")
2358            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2359        ]
2360        interpolate = (
2361            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2362        )
2363        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2364
2365    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2366        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2367
2368    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2369        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2370
2371    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2372        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2373
2374    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2375        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2376        asc = not desc
2377
2378        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2379        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2380        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2381        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2382        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2383
2384        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2385
2386        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2387        nulls_sort_change = ""
2388        if nulls_first and (
2389            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2390        ):
2391            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2392        elif (
2393            nulls_last
2394            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2395            and not nulls_are_last
2396        ):
2397            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2398
2399        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2400        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2401            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2402            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2403                self.unsupported(
2404                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2405                )
2406                nulls_sort_change = ""
2407            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2408                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2409                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2410            ):
2411                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2412                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2413                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2414
2415                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2416                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2417                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2418                    self.unsupported(
2419                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2420                    )
2421                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2422            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2423                if expression.this.is_int:
2424                    self.unsupported(
2425                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2426                    )
2427                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2428                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2429                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2430                nulls_sort_change = ""
2431
2432        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2433        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2434
2435        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2436
2437    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2438        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2439        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2440
2441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2442
2443        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2444
2445    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2446        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2447        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2448        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2449        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2450        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2451        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2452        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2453        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2454        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2455        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2456        definition_sqls = [
2457            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2458            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2459        ]
2460        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2461        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2462        body = "".join(
2463            (
2464                partition,
2465                order,
2466                measures,
2467                rows,
2468                after,
2469                pattern,
2470                define,
2471            )
2472        )
2473        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2474        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2475        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2476
2477    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2478        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2479
2480        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2481            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2482        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2483            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2484
2485        return csv(
2486            *sqls,
2487            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2488            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2489            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2490            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2491            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2492            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2493            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2494            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2495            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2496            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2497            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2498            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2499            self.options_modifier(expression),
2500            sep="",
2501        )
2502
2503    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2504        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2505        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2506
2507    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2508        return ""
2509
2510    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2511        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2512    ) -> t.List[str]:
2513        return [
2514            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2515            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2516        ]
2517
2518    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2519        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2520        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2521        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2522
2523    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2524        into = expression.args.get("into")
2525        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2526            into.pop()
2527
2528        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2529        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2530        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2531        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2532
2533        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2534        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2535            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2536            limit.pop()
2537        else:
2538            top = ""
2539
2540        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2541
2542        if kind:
2543            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2544                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2545            else:
2546                if kind == "STRUCT":
2547                    expressions = self.expressions(
2548                        sqls=[
2549                            self.sql(
2550                                exp.Struct(
2551                                    expressions=[
2552                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2553                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2554                                        else e
2555                                        for e in expression.expressions
2556                                    ]
2557                                )
2558                            )
2559                        ]
2560                    )
2561                kind = ""
2562
2563        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2564        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2565
2566        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2567        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2568        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2569        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2570        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2571            expression,
2572            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2573            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2574            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2575        )
2576
2577        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2578        if expression.args.get("with"):
2579            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2580            expression.pop_comments()
2581
2582        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2583
2584        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2585            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2586                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2587            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2588                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2589            else:
2590                table_kind = ""
2591            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2592
2593        return sql
2594
2595    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2597        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2598        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2599
2600    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2601        if expression.expressions:
2602            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2603        return ""
2604
2605    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2606        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2607        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2608        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2609        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2610        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2611        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2612        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2613
2614    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2616        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2617
2618    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2620        kind = expression.text("kind")
2621        if kind:
2622            kind = f"{kind}."
2623        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2624
2625    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2626        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2627
2628    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2629        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2630        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2631        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2632        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2633            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2634
2635            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2636            expression.set("sample", None)
2637
2638        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2639        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2640        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2641
2642    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2643        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2644        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2645
2646    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2647        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2648
2649        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2650        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2651
2652        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2653            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2654                alias.append("columns", offset)
2655
2656        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2657            columns = alias.columns
2658            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2659        else:
2660            alias = self.sql(alias)
2661
2662        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2663        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2664            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2665        else:
2666            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2667                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2668            elif offset:
2669                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2670            else:
2671                suffix = alias
2672
2673        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2674
2675    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2676        return ""
2677
2678    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2679        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2680        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2681
2682    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2683        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2684        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2685        order = expression.args.get("order")
2686        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2687        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2688        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2689        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2690
2691        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2692
2693        first = expression.args.get("first")
2694        if first is None:
2695            first = ""
2696        else:
2697            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2698
2699        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2700            return f"{this} {alias}"
2701
2702        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2703        return f"{this} ({args})"
2704
2705    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2706        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2707        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2708
2709    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2710        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2711        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2712        end = (
2713            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2714            or "CURRENT ROW"
2715        )
2716        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2717
2718    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2720        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2721        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2722
2723    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2724        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2725        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2726        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2727        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2728
2729    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2730        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2731    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2732        return apply_index_offset(
2733            expression.this,
2734            expression.expressions,
2735            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2736        )
2737
2738    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2739        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2740        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2741        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2742
2743    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2744        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2745
2746    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2748        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2749            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2750                this = self.wrap(this)
2751            return f"ANY{this}"
2752        return f"ANY {this}"
2753
2754    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2755        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2756
2757    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2758        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2759        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2760
2761        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2762            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2763            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2764
2765        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2766
2767        if default:
2768            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2769
2770        statements.append("END")
2771
2772        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2773            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2774
2775        return " ".join(statements)
2776
2777    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2778        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2779        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2780        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2781
2782    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2783        order = expression.args.get("order")
2784        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2785        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2786
2787    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2788        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2789        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2790        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2791
2792    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2793        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2794
2795        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2796            func_name = "LTRIM"
2797        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2798            func_name = "RTRIM"
2799        else:
2800            func_name = "TRIM"
2801
2802        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2803
2804    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2805        args = expression.expressions
2806        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2807            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2808
2809        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2810            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2811
2812        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2813            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2814
2815        return args
2816
2817    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2818        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2819
2820        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2821        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2822            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2823
2824        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2825
2826    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2827        return self.func(
2828            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2829        )
2830
2831    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2833        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2834
2835    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2836        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2837        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2838        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2839        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2840        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2841        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2842        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2843        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2844        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2845
2846    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2847        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2848        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2849        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2850        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2851
2852    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2853        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2854
2855    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2856        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2857        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2858        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2859
2860    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2861        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2862
2863    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2864        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2865
2866        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2867            path = self.escape_str(path)
2868
2869        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2870            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2871
2872        return path
2873
2874    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2875        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2876            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2877            if not callable(transform):
2878                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2879                return ""
2880
2881            return transform(self, expression)
2882
2883        if isinstance(expression, int):
2884            return str(expression)
2885
2886        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2887            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2888            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2889        else:
2890            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2891            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2892
2893        return escaped
2894
2895    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2897
2898    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2899        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2900        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2901
2902        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2903        if unique_keys is not None:
2904            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2905        else:
2906            unique_keys = ""
2907
2908        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2909        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2910        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2911        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2912
2913        return self.func(
2914            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2915            *expression.expressions,
2916            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2917        )
2918
2919    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2920        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2921
2922    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2923        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2924        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2925        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2926        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2927        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2928        return self.func(
2929            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2930        )
2931
2932    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2933        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2934        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2935        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2936        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2937        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2938        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2939        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2940        return self.func(
2941            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2942            this,
2943            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2944        )
2945
2946    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2947        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2948        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2949        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2950
2951        if nested_schema:
2952            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2953
2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2955        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2956        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2957        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2958
2959    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2960        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2961
2962    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2963        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2964        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2965        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2966        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2967        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2968        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2969        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2970        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2971        return self.func(
2972            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2973        )
2974
2975    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2977        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2978        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2979        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2980        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2981        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2982
2983    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2984        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2985        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2986        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2987        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2988        with_ = (
2989            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2990            if expressions
2991            else ""
2992        )
2993        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2994
2995    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2996        query = expression.args.get("query")
2997        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2998        field = expression.args.get("field")
2999        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3000
3001        if query:
3002            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3003        elif unnest:
3004            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3005        elif field:
3006            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3007        else:
3008            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3009
3010        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3011
3012    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3013        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3014
3015    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3016        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3017        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3018            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3019        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3020
3021        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3022            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3023            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3024
3025        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3026        if this:
3027            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3028            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3029
3030        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3031
3032    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3033        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3034
3035    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3036        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3037        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3038        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3039        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3040        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3041        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3042
3043    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3044        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3045        parent = expression.parent
3046        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3047        return self.func(
3048            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3049        )
3050
3051    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3052        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3053        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3054
3055    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3056        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3057        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3058        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3059        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3060
3061    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3062        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3063
3064    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3065        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3066        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3067        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3068
3069    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3070        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3071
3072        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3073        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3074
3075        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3076            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3077        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3078            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3079
3080        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3081
3082    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3083        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3084
3085    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3086        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3087        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3088        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3089
3090    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3092        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3093        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3094
3095    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3097        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3098        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3099
3100    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3101        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3102
3103    def and_sql(
3104        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3105    ) -> str:
3106        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3107
3108    def or_sql(
3109        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3110    ) -> str:
3111        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3112
3113    def xor_sql(
3114        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3115    ) -> str:
3116        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3117
3118    def connector_sql(
3119        self,
3120        expression: exp.Connector,
3121        op: str,
3122        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3123    ) -> str:
3124        if stack is not None:
3125            if expression.expressions:
3126                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3127            else:
3128                stack.append(expression.right)
3129                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3130                    for comment in expression.comments:
3131                        if comment:
3132                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3133                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3134            return op
3135
3136        stack = [expression]
3137        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3138        ops = set()
3139
3140        while stack:
3141            node = stack.pop()
3142            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3143                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3144            else:
3145                sql = self.sql(node)
3146                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3147                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3148                else:
3149                    sqls.append(sql)
3150
3151        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3152        return sep.join(sqls)
3153
3154    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3155        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3156
3157    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3158        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3159
3160    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3161        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3162
3163    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3164        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3165
3166    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3167        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3168
3169    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3170        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3171
3172    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3173        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3174        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3175        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3176        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3177        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3178        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3179        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3180
3181    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3182        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3183        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3184
3185    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3186        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3187            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3188        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3189
3190    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3191        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3192
3193    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3194        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3195        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3196        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3197        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3198        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3199        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3200
3201    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3203        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3204        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3205        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3206        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3207        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3208        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3209        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3210        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3211
3212    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3213        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3214        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3215        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3216        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3217
3218        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3219            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3220
3221        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3222
3223    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3224        return "BEGIN"
3225
3226    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3227        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3228        if chain is not None:
3229            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3230
3231        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3232
3233    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3234        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3235        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3236        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3237
3238    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3239        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3240
3241        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3242        if dtype:
3243            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3244            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3245            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3246            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3247            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3248
3249        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3250        if default:
3251            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3252
3253        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3254        if comment:
3255            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3256
3257        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3258        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3259
3260        if not drop and not allow_null:
3261            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3262
3263        if allow_null is not None:
3264            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3265            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3266
3267        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3268
3269    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3270        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3271        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3272            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3273        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3274
3275    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3276        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3277        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3278        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3279        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3280        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3281
3282    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3283        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3284            # Remove db from tables
3285            expression = expression.transform(
3286                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3287            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3288        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3289        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3290
3291    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3292        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3293        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3294        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3295        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3296
3297    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3298        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3299        return f"SET {exprs}"
3300
3301    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3302        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3303
3304        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3305            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3306        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3307            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3308        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3309            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3310        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3311            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3312        else:
3313            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3314
3315        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3316        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3317        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3318        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3319        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3320        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3321        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3322        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3323
3324        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3325
3326    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3327        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3328            return self.expressions(
3329                expression,
3330                key="actions",
3331                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3332                skip_first=True,
3333            )
3334        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3335
3336    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3337        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3338        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3339        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3340
3341    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3342        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3343
3344    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3345        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3346
3347        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3348            case = exp.case()
3349            for arg in expression.expressions:
3350                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3351            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3352
3353        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3354
3355        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3356        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3357        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3358
3359    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3360        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3361
3362    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3363        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3364
3365    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3366        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3367        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3368        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3369        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3370
3371    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3372        return self.sql(
3373            exp.Cast(
3374                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3375                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3376            )
3377        )
3378
3379    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3380        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3381            return self.func(
3382                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3383            )
3384        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3385
3386    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3387        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3388
3389        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3390            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3391
3392        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3393            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3394                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3395
3396        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3397            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3398                return self.sql(
3399                    exp.cast(
3400                        l / r,
3401                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3402                    )
3403                )
3404
3405        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3406
3407    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3408        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3409
3410    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3411        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3412
3413    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3414        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3415
3416    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3417        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3418
3419    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3420        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3421
3422    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3423        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3424
3425    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3426        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3427
3428    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3429        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3430
3431    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3432        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3433
3434    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3435        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3436
3437    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3438        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3439
3440    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3441        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3442            return self.sql(
3443                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3444            )
3445        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3446
3447    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3448        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3449
3450    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3451        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3452
3453    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3454        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3455
3456    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3457        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3458
3459    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3460        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3461
3462    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3463        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3464
3465    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3466        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3467
3468    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3469        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3470
3471    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3472        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3473
3474    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3475        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3476
3477    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3478        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3479
3480    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3481        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3482
3483    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3484        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3485
3486    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3487        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3488            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3489            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3490
3491        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3492
3493    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3494        this = expression.this
3495        expr = expression.expression
3496
3497        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3498            this, expr = expr, this
3499        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3500            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3501                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3502
3503            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3504
3505        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3506
3507    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3509        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3510        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3511        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3512        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3513
3514    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3515        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3516        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3517        binary_type = type(expression)
3518
3519        while stack:
3520            node = stack.pop()
3521
3522            if type(node) is binary_type:
3523                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3524                if op_func:
3525                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3526
3527                stack.append(node.right)
3528                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3529                stack.append(node.left)
3530            else:
3531                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3532
3533        return "".join(sqls)
3534
3535    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3536        args = []
3537
3538        for key in expression.arg_types:
3539            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3540
3541            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3542                for value in arg_value:
3543                    args.append(value)
3544            elif arg_value is not None:
3545                args.append(arg_value)
3546
3547        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3548            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3549        else:
3550            name = expression.sql_name()
3551
3552        return self.func(name, *args)
3553
3554    def func(
3555        self,
3556        name: str,
3557        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3558        prefix: str = "(",
3559        suffix: str = ")",
3560        normalize: bool = True,
3561    ) -> str:
3562        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3563        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3564
3565    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3566        arg_sqls = tuple(
3567            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3568        )
3569        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3570            return self.indent(
3571                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3572            )
3573        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3574
3575    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3576        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3577
3578    def format_time(
3579        self,
3580        expression: exp.Expression,
3581        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3582        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3583    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3584        return format_time(
3585            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3586            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3587            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3588        )
3589
3590    def expressions(
3591        self,
3592        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3593        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3594        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3595        flat: bool = False,
3596        indent: bool = True,
3597        skip_first: bool = False,
3598        skip_last: bool = False,
3599        sep: str = ", ",
3600        prefix: str = "",
3601        dynamic: bool = False,
3602        new_line: bool = False,
3603    ) -> str:
3604        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3605
3606        if not expressions:
3607            return ""
3608
3609        if flat:
3610            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3611
3612        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3613        result_sqls = []
3614
3615        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3616            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3617            if not sql:
3618                continue
3619
3620            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3621
3622            if self.pretty:
3623                if self.leading_comma:
3624                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3625                else:
3626                    result_sqls.append(
3627                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3628                    )
3629            else:
3630                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3631
3632        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3633            if new_line:
3634                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3635                result_sqls.append("")
3636            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3637        else:
3638            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3639
3640        return (
3641            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3642            if indent
3643            else result_sql
3644        )
3645
3646    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3647        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3648        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3649        if flat:
3650            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3651        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3652
3653    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3654        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3655        if not property_name:
3656            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3657        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3658
3659    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3660        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3661
3662    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3663        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3664
3665    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3666        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3667        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3668        expressions = (
3669            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3670        )
3671        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3672
3673    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3675        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3676        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3677
3678    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3679        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3680
3681    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3682        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3683        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3684        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3685        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3686
3687        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3688        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3689            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3690            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3691            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3692            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3693        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3694            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3695                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3696            else:
3697                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3698        else:
3699            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3700        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3701
3702    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3703        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3704
3705    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3706        table = expression.this
3707        table_alias = ""
3708
3709        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3710        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3711            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3712            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3713
3714        this = self.sql(table)
3715        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3716        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3717        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3718
3719        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3720        if returning:
3721            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3722
3723        sep = self.sep()
3724
3725        return self.prepend_ctes(
3726            expression,
3727            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3728        )
3729
3730    @unsupported_args("format")
3731    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3732        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3733
3734    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3735        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3736            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3737            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3738
3739        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3740        if not fmt:
3741            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3742            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3743
3744        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3745
3746    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3747        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3748        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3749        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3750        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3751        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3752
3753    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3754        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3755        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3756        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3757        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3758
3759    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3760        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3761
3762    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3763        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3764
3765    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3766    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3767        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3768
3769    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3770    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3771        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3772        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3773        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3774        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3775        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3776        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3777        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3778
3779    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3780        return ""
3781
3782    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3783        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3784        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3785        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3786        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3787        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3788
3789    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3791        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3792
3793        if having:
3794            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3795
3796        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3797
3798    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3799        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3800        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3801        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3802        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3803        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3804        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3805        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3806        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3807        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3808        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3809        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3810        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3811        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3812
3813    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3814        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3815        if key_block_size:
3816            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3817
3818        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3819        if using:
3820            return f"USING {using}"
3821
3822        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3823        if parser:
3824            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3825
3826        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3827        if comment:
3828            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3829
3830        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3831        if visible is not None:
3832            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3833
3834        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3835        if engine_attr:
3836            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3837
3838        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3839        if secondary_engine_attr:
3840            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3841
3842        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3843        return ""
3844
3845    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3846        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3847        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3848
3849    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3850        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3851        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3853        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3854        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3855        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3856        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3857        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3858        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3859        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3860        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3861
3862    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3863        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3864            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3865
3866        case = exp.Case().when(
3867            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3868            expression.args["true"],
3869            copy=False,
3870        )
3871        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3872        if else_cond:
3873            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3874
3875        return self.sql(case)
3876
3877    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3878        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3879        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3880        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3881        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3882        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3883        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3884
3885    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3886        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3887
3888    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3889        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3890
3891    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3892        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3893        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3894        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3895        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3896        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3897        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3898
3899    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3900        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3901        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3902        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3903
3904    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3906        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3907        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3908
3909    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3910        arg = expression.this
3911        if not arg.type:
3912            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3913
3914            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3915
3916        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3917            return self.sql(arg)
3918
3919        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3920        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3921
3922    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3923        this = expression.this
3924        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3925            return self.sql(this)
3926
3927        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3928
3929    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3930        this = expression.this
3931        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3932            return self.sql(this)
3933
3934        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3935
3936    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3937        this = expression.this
3938        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3939            return self.sql(this)
3940
3941        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3942
3943    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3944        this = expression.this
3945        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3946
3947        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3948            return self.sql(
3949                exp.cast(
3950                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3951                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3952                )
3953            )
3954
3955        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3956            return self.sql(this)
3957
3958        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3959
3960    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3961        return self.sql(
3962            exp.func(
3963                "DATEDIFF",
3964                expression.this,
3965                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3966                "day",
3967            )
3968        )
3969
3970    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3971        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3972            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3973
3974        unit = expression.text("unit")
3975        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3976            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3977
3978        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3979
3980    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3981        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3982
3983        return self.func(
3984            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3985        )
3986
3987    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3988        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3989            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3990            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3991            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3992            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3993
3994        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3995
3996        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3997        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3998            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3999
4000        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4001
4002    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4003        expression.set(
4004            "expressions",
4005            [
4006                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4007                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4008                else e
4009                for e in expression.expressions
4010            ],
4011        )
4012
4013        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4014
4015    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4016        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4017        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4018
4019        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4020
4021    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4022        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4023        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4024
4025        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4026
4027        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4028        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4029
4030        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4031        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4032
4033        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4034        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4035
4036        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4037        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4038
4039        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4040
4041    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4042    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4043    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4044        to = expression.this
4045        value = expression.expression
4046        style = expression.args.get("style")
4047        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4048        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4049
4050        if not to or not value:
4051            return ""
4052
4053        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4054        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4055            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4056
4057        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4058        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4059
4060        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4061        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4062            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4063
4064            style_value = style.name
4065            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4066            if not converted_style:
4067                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4068
4069            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4070
4071            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4072                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4073            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4074                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4075            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4076                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4077            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4078                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4079
4080        if not transformed:
4081            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4082
4083        return self.sql(transformed)
4084
4085    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4086        this = expression.this
4087        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4088            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4089            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4090
4091        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4092            return f".{this}"
4093
4094        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4095        return (
4096            f"[{this}]"
4097            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4098            else f".{this}"
4099        )
4100
4101    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4102        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4103        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4104
4105    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4106        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4107            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4108
4109            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4110
4111        return expression
4112
4113    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4114        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4115            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4116            mods = sorted(
4117                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4118                key=lambda x: 0
4119                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4120                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4121            )
4122
4123            if mods:
4124                mod = mods[0]
4125                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4126                this.meta["inline"] = True
4127                mod.this.replace(this)
4128                return self.sql(expression.this)
4129
4130            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4131
4132            if agg_func:
4133                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4134
4135        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4136
4137    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4138        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4139        if self.pretty:
4140            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4141        return string
4142
4143    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4144        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4145
4146        if expression.expressions:
4147            upper = option.upper()
4148
4149            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4150            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4151
4152            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4153            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4154            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4155            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4156
4157        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4158
4159        if not value:
4160            return option
4161
4162        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4163
4164        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4165
4166    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4167        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4168        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4169            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4170            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4171            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4172        else:
4173            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4174            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4175            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4176
4177        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4178        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4179
4180        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4181        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4182
4183        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4184        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4185
4186        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4187        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4188
4189        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4190
4191    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4192        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4193        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4194
4195        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4196        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4197        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4198        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4199
4200        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4201        params = self.expressions(
4202            expression,
4203            key="params",
4204            sep=sep,
4205            new_line=True,
4206            skip_last=True,
4207            skip_first=True,
4208            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4209        )
4210
4211        if params:
4212            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4213                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4214            elif not self.pretty:
4215                params = f" {params}"
4216
4217        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4218
4219    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4220        return ""
4221
4222    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4223        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4224        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4225        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4226        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4227        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4228
4229        if filter_col or retention_period:
4230            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4231
4232        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4233
4234    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4235        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4236    ) -> str:
4237        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4238        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4239        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4240        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4241
4242    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4243        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4244        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4245        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4246
4247    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4248        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4249
4250    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4251        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4252        expr = expression.expression
4253
4254        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4255            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4256            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4257        else:
4258            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4259
4260        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4261
4262    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4263        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4264            return self.sql(expression.this)
4265
4266        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4267
4268    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4269        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4270        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4271
4272        if lower and upper:
4273            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4274        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4275
4276    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4277        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4278        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4279        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4280        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4281        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4282        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4283
4284        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4285
4286    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4287        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4288
4289        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4290        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4291            fill_pattern = "' '"
4292
4293        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4294
4295    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4296        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4297        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4298
4299    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4300        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4301
4302        parent = expression.parent
4303        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4304            parent = parent.parent
4305
4306        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4307            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4308
4309        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4310            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4311
4312        return self.sql(generate_series)
4313
4314    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4315        exprs = expression.expressions
4316        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4317            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4318        else:
4319            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4320
4321        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4322
4323    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4324        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4325            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4326
4327        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4328        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4329        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4330
4331        if source_tz and timestamp:
4332            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4333                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4334            )
4335
4336        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4337
4338        return self.sql(expr)
4339
4340    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4341        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4342        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4343
4344        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4345
4346        if _with is None:
4347            with_sql = ""
4348        elif not _with:
4349            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4350        else:
4351            with_sql = " WITH"
4352
4353        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4354
4355        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4356
4357    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4358        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4359            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4360
4361        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4362        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4363        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4364
4365        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4366        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4367
4368        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4369
4370    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4371        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4372        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4373        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4374        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4375        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4376
4377    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4378        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4379        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4380        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4381        return res
4382
4383    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4384        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4385        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4386        empty = (
4387            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4388            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4389            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4390        )
4391
4392        error = expression.args.get("error")
4393        error = (
4394            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4395            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4396            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4397        )
4398
4399        if error and empty:
4400            error = (
4401                f"{empty} {error}"
4402                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4403                else f"{error} {empty}"
4404            )
4405            empty = ""
4406
4407        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4408
4409        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4410
4411    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4413        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4414
4415        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4416        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4417
4418        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4419        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4420
4421        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4422
4423        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4424
4425    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4426        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4427
4428        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4429        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4430        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4431            parent = expression.parent
4432            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4433                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4434                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4435            else:
4436                this = expression.this
4437                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4438                if this.find(exp.Column):
4439                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4440                    this_sql = (
4441                        self.expressions(this)
4442                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4443                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4444                    )
4445
4446                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4447
4448        return array_agg
4449
4450    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4451        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4452        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4453
4454        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4455
4456    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4457        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4458
4459        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4460        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4461
4462        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4463        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4464
4465        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4466
4467        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4468
4469        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4470
4471    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4472        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4473        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4474        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4475
4476        return f"{this}{columns}"
4477
4478    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4479        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4480
4481        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4482        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4483
4484        return f"{kind}{this}"
4485
4486    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4487        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4488        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4489            func = f"*{func}"
4490
4491        return func
4492
4493    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4494        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4495        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4496        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4497        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4498        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4499
4500        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4501
4502    @unsupported_args("format")
4503    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4504        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4505
4506    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4507        this = expression.this
4508        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4509
4510        if zone:
4511            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4512            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4513            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4514            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4515                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4516            )
4517
4518        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4519
4520    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4521        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4522            return self.sql(
4523                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4524            )
4525
4526        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4527
4528    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4529        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4530        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4531        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4532        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4533
4534    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4535        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4536            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4537
4538        start_ts = exp.cast(
4539            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4540        )
4541
4542        return self.sql(
4543            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4544        )
4545
4546    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4547        dim = expression.expression
4548
4549        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4550        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4551            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4552                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4553            dim = None
4554
4555        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4556        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4557            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4558
4559        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4560
4561    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4563        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4564        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4565        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4566
4567        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4568
4569    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4570        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4571        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4572
4573        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4574
4575    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4577        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4578        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4579        return f"{this}{value}"
4580
4581    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4582        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4583        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4584            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4585
4586        return self.func(
4587            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4588            this_sql,
4589            expression.args.get("time"),
4590            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4591            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4592        )
4593
4594    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4595        return (
4596            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4597        )
4598
4599    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4600        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4601        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4602
4603        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4604        if properties:
4605            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4606
4607        return encode
4608
4609    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4611        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4612
4613        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4614        if column_def:
4615            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4616
4617        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4618        if alias:
4619            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4620
4621        return include
4622
4623    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4624        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4625        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4626
4627    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4628        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4629        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4630        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4631
4632    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4633        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4634    ) -> str:
4635        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4636        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4637
4638        every = expression.args["every"]
4639        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4640            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4641
4642        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4643
4644    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4645        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4646        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4647
4648        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4649
4650    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4651        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4652        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4653        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4654        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4655        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4656        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4657        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE = "Argument '{}' is not supported for expression '{}' when targeting {}."
def unsupported_args( *args: Union[str, Tuple[str, str]]) -> Callable[[Callable[[~G, ~E], str]], Callable[[~G, ~E], str]]:
30def unsupported_args(
31    *args: t.Union[str, t.Tuple[str, str]],
32) -> t.Callable[[GeneratorMethod], GeneratorMethod]:
33    """
34    Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an `Expression` subclass as unsupported.
35    It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).
36    """
37    diagnostic_by_arg: t.Dict[str, t.Optional[str]] = {}
38    for arg in args:
39        if isinstance(arg, str):
40            diagnostic_by_arg[arg] = None
41        else:
42            diagnostic_by_arg[arg[0]] = arg[1]
43
44    def decorator(func: GeneratorMethod) -> GeneratorMethod:
45        @wraps(func)
46        def _func(generator: G, expression: E) -> str:
47            expression_name = expression.__class__.__name__
48            dialect_name = generator.dialect.__class__.__name__
49
50            for arg_name, diagnostic in diagnostic_by_arg.items():
51                if expression.args.get(arg_name):
52                    diagnostic = diagnostic or UNSUPPORTED_TEMPLATE.format(
53                        arg_name, expression_name, dialect_name
54                    )
55                    generator.unsupported(diagnostic)
56
57            return func(generator, expression)
58
59        return _func
60
61    return decorator

Decorator that can be used to mark certain args of an Expression subclass as unsupported. It expects a sequence of argument names or pairs of the form (argument_name, diagnostic_msg).

class Generator:
  75class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  76    """
  77    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  78
  79    Args:
  80        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  81            Default: False.
  82        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  83            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  84            True or 'always': Always quote.
  85            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  86        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  87            Default: False.
  88        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  89            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  90            Default: 2.
  91        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  92            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  93            Default: 2.
  94        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  95            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  96            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  97            False: Disables function name normalization.
  98        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  99            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
 100        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
 101            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
 102            Default: 3
 103        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
 104            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
 105            Default: False
 106        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
 107            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
 108            line length.
 109            Default: 80
 110        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
 111            Default: True
 112    """
 113
 114    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
 115        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
 116        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
 117        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 118        exp.ArrayContainsAll: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "@>"),
 119        exp.ArrayOverlaps: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, "&&"),
 120        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
 123        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
 124        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 129        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
 133        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
 136        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
 137        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 139        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 140        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 141        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 142        exp.Except: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 143        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 144        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 145        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 146        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 147        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.Intersect: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 151        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 152        exp.Int64: lambda self, e: self.sql(exp.cast(e.this, exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT)),
 153        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 154        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 155        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 156        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 157        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 158        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 159        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 160        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 161        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 162        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 163        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 164        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 165        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 166        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 167        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 168        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 169        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 170        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 171        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 172        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 173        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 174            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 175        ),
 176        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 177        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 178        exp.SecurityProperty: lambda self, e: f"SECURITY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 179        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 180        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 181        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 182        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 183        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 184        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 185        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 186        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 187        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 188        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 189        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 190        exp.SwapTable: lambda self, e: f"SWAP WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 191        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 192        exp.Tags: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 193        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 194        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 195        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 196        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 197        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 198        exp.Union: lambda self, e: self.set_operations(e),
 199        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 200        exp.Uuid: lambda *_: "UUID()",
 201        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 202        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 203        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 204        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 205        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 206        exp.WithProcedureOptions: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
 207        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 208        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 209    }
 210
 211    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 212    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support for certain cases
 213    # such as window specifications, aggregate functions etc
 214    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 215
 216    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 217    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 218    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 219
 220    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 221    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 222
 223    # Whether the EXCEPT and INTERSECT operations can return duplicates
 224    EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
 225
 226    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 227    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 228
 229    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 230    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 231
 232    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 233    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 234
 235    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 236    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 237
 238    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 239    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 240
 241    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 242    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 243
 244    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 245    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 246
 247    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 248    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 249
 250    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 251    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 252
 253    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 254    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 255
 256    # Whether join hints should be generated
 257    JOIN_HINTS = True
 258
 259    # Whether table hints should be generated
 260    TABLE_HINTS = True
 261
 262    # Whether query hints should be generated
 263    QUERY_HINTS = True
 264
 265    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 266    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 267
 268    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 269    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 270
 271    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 272    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 273
 274    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 275    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 276
 277    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 278    RETURNING_END = True
 279
 280    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 281    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 282
 283    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 284    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 285
 286    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 287    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 288
 289    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 290    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 291
 292    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 293    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 294    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 295    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 296
 297    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 298    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 299
 300    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 301    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 302
 303    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 304    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 305
 306    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 307    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 308
 309    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 310    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 311
 312    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 313    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 314
 315    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 316    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 317
 318    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 319    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 320
 321    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 322    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 323
 324    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 325    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 326
 327    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 328    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 329
 330    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 331    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 332
 333    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 334    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 335
 336    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 337    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 338
 339    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 340    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 341
 342    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 343    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 344
 345    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 346    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 347
 348    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 349    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 350
 351    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 352    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 353
 354    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 355    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 356
 357    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 358    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 359
 360    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 361    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 362
 363    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 364    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 365
 366    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 367    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 368
 369    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 370    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 371
 372    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 373    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 374    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 375
 376    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 377    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 378
 379    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 380    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 381
 382    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 383    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 384
 385    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 386    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 387
 388    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 389    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 390
 391    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 392    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 393
 394    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 395    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 396    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 397    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 398
 399    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 400    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 401
 402    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 403    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 404
 405    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 406    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 407
 408    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 409    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 410
 411    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 412    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 413
 414    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 415    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 416
 417    # The HEX function name
 418    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 419
 420    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 421    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 422
 423    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 424    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 425
 426    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 427    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 428
 429    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 430    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 431
 432    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 433    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 434
 435    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 436    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 437
 438    # Whether MEDIAN(expr) is supported; if not, it will be generated as PERCENTILE_CONT(expr, 0.5)
 439    SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
 440
 441    # Whether UNIX_SECONDS(timestamp) is supported
 442    SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
 443
 444    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 445    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 446
 447    # The function name of the exp.ArraySize expression
 448    ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = "ARRAY_LENGTH"
 449
 450    # Whether exp.ArraySize should generate the dimension arg too (valid for Postgres & DuckDB)
 451    # None -> Doesn't support it at all
 452    # False (DuckDB) -> Has backwards-compatible support, but preferably generated without
 453    # True (Postgres) -> Explicitly requires it
 454    ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: t.Optional[bool] = None
 455
 456    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 457        exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2: "TIMESTAMP",
 458        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 459        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 460        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 461        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 462        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 463        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 464        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 465        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 466        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 467        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 468        exp.DataType.Type.SMALLDATETIME: "TIMESTAMP",
 469    }
 470
 471    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 472        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 473        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 474        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 475        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 476        "DAYS": "DAY",
 477        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 478        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 479        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 480        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 481    }
 482
 483    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 484        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 485        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 486        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 487        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 488            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 489            if e.args.get("windows")
 490            else ""
 491        ),
 492        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 493    }
 494
 495    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 496
 497    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 498
 499    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 500    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 501
 502    EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: t.Set[str] = set()
 503
 504    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 505        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 511        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 513        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.DistributedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.DuplicateKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 520        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 521        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 522        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 525        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 526        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 527        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 528        exp.EncodeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 529        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 530        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 531        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 532        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 533        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 534        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 535        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 536        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 537        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 538        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 539        exp.IncludeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 540        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 541        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 542        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 543        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 544        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 545        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 546        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 547        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 548        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 549        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 550        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 551        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 552        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 553        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 554        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 555        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 556        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 557        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 558        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 559        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 560        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 561        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 562        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 563        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 564        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 565        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 566        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 567        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 568        exp.SecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 569        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 570        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 571        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 572        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 573        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 574        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 575        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 576        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 577        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 578        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 579        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 580        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 581        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 582        exp.Tags: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 583        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 584        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 585        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 586        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 587        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 588        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 589        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 590        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 591        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 592        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 593        exp.WithProcedureOptions: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 594        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 595        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 596    }
 597
 598    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 599    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 600
 601    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 602    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 603        exp.Command,
 604        exp.Create,
 605        exp.Describe,
 606        exp.Delete,
 607        exp.Drop,
 608        exp.From,
 609        exp.Insert,
 610        exp.Join,
 611        exp.MultitableInserts,
 612        exp.Select,
 613        exp.SetOperation,
 614        exp.Update,
 615        exp.Where,
 616        exp.With,
 617    )
 618
 619    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 620    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 621        exp.Binary,
 622        exp.SetOperation,
 623    )
 624
 625    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 626    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 627        exp.Column,
 628        exp.Literal,
 629        exp.Neg,
 630        exp.Paren,
 631    )
 632
 633    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 634        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 635        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 636        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 637        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 638    }
 639
 640    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 641    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 642
 643    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 644
 645    __slots__ = (
 646        "pretty",
 647        "identify",
 648        "normalize",
 649        "pad",
 650        "_indent",
 651        "normalize_functions",
 652        "unsupported_level",
 653        "max_unsupported",
 654        "leading_comma",
 655        "max_text_width",
 656        "comments",
 657        "dialect",
 658        "unsupported_messages",
 659        "_escaped_quote_end",
 660        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 661        "_next_name",
 662        "_identifier_start",
 663        "_identifier_end",
 664        "_quote_json_path_key_using_brackets",
 665    )
 666
 667    def __init__(
 668        self,
 669        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 670        identify: str | bool = False,
 671        normalize: bool = False,
 672        pad: int = 2,
 673        indent: int = 2,
 674        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 675        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 676        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 677        leading_comma: bool = False,
 678        max_text_width: int = 80,
 679        comments: bool = True,
 680        dialect: DialectType = None,
 681    ):
 682        import sqlglot
 683        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 684
 685        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 686        self.identify = identify
 687        self.normalize = normalize
 688        self.pad = pad
 689        self._indent = indent
 690        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 691        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 692        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 693        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 694        self.comments = comments
 695        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 696
 697        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 698        self.normalize_functions = (
 699            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 700        )
 701
 702        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 703        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 704            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 705        )
 706        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
 707
 708        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 709
 710        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
 711        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 712
 713        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
 714
 715    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 716        """
 717        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 718
 719        Args:
 720            expression: The syntax tree.
 721            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 722                it is safer to copy.
 723
 724        Returns:
 725            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 726        """
 727        if copy:
 728            expression = expression.copy()
 729
 730        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 731
 732        self.unsupported_messages = []
 733        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 734
 735        if self.pretty:
 736            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 737
 738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 739            return sql
 740
 741        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 742            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 743                logger.warning(msg)
 744        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 745            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 746
 747        return sql
 748
 749    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 750        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 751        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 752
 753        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 754            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 755
 756            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 757
 758        return expression
 759
 760    def _move_ctes_to_top_level(self, expression: E) -> E:
 761        if (
 762            not expression.parent
 763            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 764            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 765        ):
 766            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 767
 768            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 769        return expression
 770
 771    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 772        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 773            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 774        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 775
 776    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 777        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 778
 779    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 780        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 781
 782    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 783        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 784        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 785        return comment
 786
 787    def maybe_comment(
 788        self,
 789        sql: str,
 790        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 791        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 792        separated: bool = False,
 793    ) -> str:
 794        comments = (
 795            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 796            if self.comments
 797            else None
 798        )
 799
 800        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 801            return sql
 802
 803        comments_sql = " ".join(
 804            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 805        )
 806
 807        if not comments_sql:
 808            return sql
 809
 810        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 811
 812        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 813            return (
 814                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 815                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 816                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 817            )
 818
 819        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 820
 821    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 822        this_sql = (
 823            self.sql(expression)
 824            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 825            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        )
 827        if not this_sql:
 828            return "()"
 829
 830        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 831        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 832
 833    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 834        original = self.identify
 835        self.identify = False
 836        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 837        self.identify = original
 838        return result
 839
 840    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 841        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 842            return name.upper()
 843        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 844            return name.lower()
 845        return name
 846
 847    def indent(
 848        self,
 849        sql: str,
 850        level: int = 0,
 851        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 852        skip_first: bool = False,
 853        skip_last: bool = False,
 854    ) -> str:
 855        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 856            return sql
 857
 858        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 859        lines = sql.split("\n")
 860
 861        return "\n".join(
 862            (
 863                line
 864                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 865                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 866            )
 867            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 868        )
 869
 870    def sql(
 871        self,
 872        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 873        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 874        comment: bool = True,
 875    ) -> str:
 876        if not expression:
 877            return ""
 878
 879        if isinstance(expression, str):
 880            return expression
 881
 882        if key:
 883            value = expression.args.get(key)
 884            if value:
 885                return self.sql(value)
 886            return ""
 887
 888        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 889
 890        if callable(transform):
 891            sql = transform(self, expression)
 892        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 893            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 894
 895            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 896                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 897            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 898                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 899            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 900                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 901            else:
 902                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 903        else:
 904            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 905
 906        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 907
 908    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 909        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 911        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 912
 913    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 914        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 915        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 916        options = expression.args.get("options")
 917        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 918        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 919        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 920        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 921        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 922
 923    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 924        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 925            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 926        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 927        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 928
 929    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 930        return ".".join(
 931            self.sql(part)
 932            for part in (
 933                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 934                expression.args.get("db"),
 935                expression.args.get("table"),
 936                expression.args.get("this"),
 937            )
 938            if part
 939        )
 940
 941    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 942        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 943
 944        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 945            join_mark = ""
 946            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 947
 948        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 949
 950    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 952        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 953        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 954        return f"{position}{this}"
 955
 956    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 957        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 959        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 960        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 961        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 962        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 963        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 964        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 965
 966        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 967            kind = ""
 968
 969        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 970
 971    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 973        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 974        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 975
 976    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 978        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 979            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 980        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 981            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 982        else:
 983            persisted = ""
 984        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 985
 986    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 987        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 988
 989    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 990        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 991            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 992        else:
 993            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 994
 995        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 996
 997    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 998        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 999    ) -> str:
1000        this = ""
1001        if expression.this is not None:
1002            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1003            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1004
1005        start = expression.args.get("start")
1006        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1007        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1008        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1009        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1010        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1011        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1012        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1013        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1014        cycle_sql = ""
1015
1016        if cycle is not None:
1017            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1018            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1019
1020        sequence_opts = ""
1021        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1022            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1023            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1024
1025        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1026        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1027
1028        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
1029
1030    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1031        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1032    ) -> str:
1033        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1034        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1035        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
1036
1037    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1038        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1039    ) -> str:
1040        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
1041
1042    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
1044
1045    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1046        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1047
1048    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1049        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1050        if desc is not None:
1051            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1052        return "PRIMARY KEY"
1053
1054    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1057        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1058        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1059        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1060        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1061        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1062        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
1063
1064    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1065        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1066
1067    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1068        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1069        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1070        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1071        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1072
1073        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1074
1075        properties_sql = ""
1076        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1077            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1078        ):
1079            properties_sql = self.sql(
1080                exp.Properties(
1081                    expressions=[
1082                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1083                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1084                    ]
1085                )
1086            )
1087
1088            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1089                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1090            elif not self.pretty:
1091                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1092                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1093
1094        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1095        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1096
1097        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1098        if expression_sql:
1099            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1100
1101            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1102                postalias_props_sql = ""
1103                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1104                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                        exp.Properties(
1106                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1107                        ),
1108                        wrapped=False,
1109                    )
1110                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1111                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1112
1113        postindex_props_sql = ""
1114        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1115            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1117                wrapped=False,
1118                prefix=" ",
1119            )
1120
1121        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1122        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1123        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1124
1125        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1126        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1127        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1128
1129        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1130        if clustered is None:
1131            clustered_sql = ""
1132        elif clustered:
1133            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1134        else:
1135            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1136
1137        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1138        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1139            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1140                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1141                sep=" ",
1142                prefix=" ",
1143                wrapped=False,
1144            )
1145
1146        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1147
1148        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1149        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1150            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1151                exp.Properties(
1152                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1153                ),
1154                sep=" ",
1155                prefix=" ",
1156                wrapped=False,
1157            )
1158
1159        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1160        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1161        no_schema_binding = (
1162            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1163        )
1164
1165        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1166        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1167
1168        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1169            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1170        else:
1171            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1172
1173        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1174        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1175
1176    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1177        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1178        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1179        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1180        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1181        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1182        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1183        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1184        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1185        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1186        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1187
1188        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1189        if cache is None:
1190            cache_str = ""
1191        elif cache is True:
1192            cache_str = " CACHE"
1193        else:
1194            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1195
1196        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1197        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1198
1199        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1200
1201    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1203        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1204        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1205        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1206
1207    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1208        style = expression.args.get("style")
1209        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1210        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1211        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1212        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1213        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1214
1215        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1216
1217    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1218        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1219        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1220
1221    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1222        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1223        if with_:
1224            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1225        return sql
1226
1227    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1228        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1229        recursive = (
1230            "RECURSIVE "
1231            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1232            else ""
1233        )
1234
1235        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1236
1237    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1238        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1239        if alias:
1240            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1241
1242        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243
1244        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1245        if materialized is False:
1246            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1247        elif materialized:
1248            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1249
1250        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1251
1252    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1253        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1255        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1256
1257        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1258            columns = ""
1259            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1260
1261        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1262            alias = self._next_name()
1263
1264        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1265
1266    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1269            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1270        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1271
1272    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1275            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1276        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1277
1278    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1281            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1282        return this
1283
1284    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1287
1288        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1289            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1290            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1291        else:
1292            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1293            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1294
1295        if escape:
1296            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1297            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1298        else:
1299            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1300            escape_sql = ""
1301
1302        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1303            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1304
1305        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1306
1307    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1308        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1309        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1310
1311    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1313        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1314        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1315        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1316
1317    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1318        nested = ""
1319        values = ""
1320        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1321
1322        type_value = expression.this
1323        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1324            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1325        else:
1326            type_sql = (
1327                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1328                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1329                else type_value
1330            )
1331
1332        if interior:
1333            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1334                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1335                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1336                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1337                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1338                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1339            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1340                nested = f" {interior}"
1341            else:
1342                nested = f"({interior})"
1343
1344        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1345        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1346            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1347            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1348        ):
1349            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1350
1351        return type_sql
1352
1353    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1354        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1355        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1356        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1357        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1358
1359    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1362        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1363        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1364        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1365        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1366        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1367        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1368        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1369        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1370        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1371        if self.RETURNING_END:
1372            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1373        else:
1374            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1376
1377    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1380        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1381        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1382        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1383        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1384        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1385        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1386        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1387        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1388        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1389        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1390        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1391        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1392        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1393
1394    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1395        op_type = type(expression)
1396        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1397
1398        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1399        if (
1400            distinct is False
1401            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1402            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1403        ):
1404            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1405
1406        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1407
1408        if distinct is None:
1409            distinct = default_distinct
1410            if distinct is None:
1411                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1412
1413        if distinct is default_distinct:
1414            kind = ""
1415        else:
1416            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1417
1418        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1419        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
1420
1421    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1422        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1423            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1424            order = expression.args.get("order")
1425
1426            if limit or order:
1427                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1428                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1429                )
1430
1431                if limit:
1432                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1433                if order:
1434                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1435                return self.sql(select)
1436
1437        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1438        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1439
1440        while stack:
1441            node = stack.pop()
1442
1443            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1444                stack.append(node.expression)
1445                stack.append(
1446                    self.maybe_comment(
1447                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1448                    )
1449                )
1450                stack.append(node.this)
1451            else:
1452                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1453
1454        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1455        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1456        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
1457
1458    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1459        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1460        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1461        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1462        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1463        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1464            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1465        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1466        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1467
1468    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1469        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1470            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1472            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1473
1474        agg = expression.this
1475        agg_arg = agg.this
1476        cond = expression.expression.this
1477        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1478        return self.sql(agg)
1479
1480    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1481        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1482            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1483            return ""
1484
1485        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1486
1487    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1488        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1489        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1490        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1491        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1492        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1493        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1494        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1495        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1496        if include:
1497            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1498        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1499        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1500        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1501        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1502        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1503        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1504
1505        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1506
1507    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1508        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1509        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1510        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1511        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1512        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1513        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1514        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1515
1516        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1517
1518        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1519        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1520
1521    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1522        text = expression.name
1523        lower = text.lower()
1524        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1525        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1526        if (
1527            expression.quoted
1528            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1529            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1530            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1531        ):
1532            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1533        return text
1534
1535    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1536        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1537        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1538            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1539
1540        return text
1541
1542    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1543        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1544        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1545            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1546        return text
1547
1548    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1549        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1550        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1551        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1552        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1553        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1554
1555    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1556        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1557        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1558
1559    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1560        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1561
1562    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1563        root_properties = []
1564        with_properties = []
1565
1566        for p in expression.expressions:
1567            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1568            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1569                with_properties.append(p)
1570            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1571                root_properties.append(p)
1572
1573        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1574        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1575
1576        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1577            with_props = " " + with_props
1578
1579        return root_props + with_props
1580
1581    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1582        if properties.expressions:
1583            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1584        return ""
1585
1586    def properties(
1587        self,
1588        properties: exp.Properties,
1589        prefix: str = "",
1590        sep: str = ", ",
1591        suffix: str = "",
1592        wrapped: bool = True,
1593    ) -> str:
1594        if properties.expressions:
1595            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1596            if expressions:
1597                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1598                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1599        return ""
1600
1601    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1602        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1603
1604    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1605        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1606        for p in properties.expressions:
1607            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1608            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1609                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1610            else:
1611                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1612
1613        return properties_locs
1614
1615    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1616        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1617            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1618        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1619
1620    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1621        property_cls = expression.__class__
1622        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1623            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1624
1625        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1626        if not property_name:
1627            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1628
1629        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1630
1631    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1632        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1633            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1634            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1635
1636            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1637            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1638                like = f"({like})"
1639
1640            return like
1641
1642        if expression.expressions:
1643            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1644
1645        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1646        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1647
1648    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1649        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1650        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1651        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1652
1653    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1654        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1655        local = expression.args.get("local")
1656        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1657        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1658        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1659        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1660        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1661
1662    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1663        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1664        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1665        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1666
1667    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1668        if expression.args.get("default"):
1669            property = "DEFAULT"
1670        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1671            property = "ON"
1672        else:
1673            property = "OFF"
1674        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1675
1676    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1677        if expression.args.get("no"):
1678            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1679        if expression.args.get("default"):
1680            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1681
1682        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1683        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1684
1685    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1686        default = expression.args.get("default")
1687        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1688        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1689        if default or minimum or maximum:
1690            if default:
1691                prop = "DEFAULT"
1692            elif minimum:
1693                prop = "MINIMUM"
1694            else:
1695                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1696            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1697        units = expression.args.get("units")
1698        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1699        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1700
1701    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1702        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1703        always = expression.args.get("always")
1704        default = expression.args.get("default")
1705        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1706        never = expression.args.get("never")
1707
1708        if autotemp is not None:
1709            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1710        elif always:
1711            prop = "ALWAYS"
1712        elif default:
1713            prop = "DEFAULT"
1714        elif manual:
1715            prop = "MANUAL"
1716        elif never:
1717            prop = "NEVER"
1718        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1719
1720    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1721        no = expression.args.get("no")
1722        no = " NO" if no else ""
1723        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1724        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1725        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1726        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1727        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1728
1729    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1730        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1731            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1732        if expression.this:
1733            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1734            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1735            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1736
1737        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1738        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1739        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1740
1741    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743
1744        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1745        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1746            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1747        else:
1748            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1749
1750        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1751
1752    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1753        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1754        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1755        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1756        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1757        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1758        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1759        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1760
1761    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1762        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1763        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1764        statistics_sql = ""
1765        if statistics is not None:
1766            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1767        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1768
1769    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1772        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1773        data_consistency = (
1774            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1775        )
1776        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1777        retention_period = (
1778            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1779        )
1780
1781        if this:
1782            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1783        else:
1784            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1785
1786        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1787
1788        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1789
1790    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1791        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1792        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1793
1794        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1795            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1796        else:
1797            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1798
1799        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1800        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1801        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1802        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1803        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1804        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1805        if is_function:
1806            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1807        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1808
1809        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1810        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1811        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1812        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1813        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1814        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1815        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1816        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1817
1818        if self.RETURNING_END:
1819            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1820        else:
1821            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1822
1823        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1824        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1825        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1826        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1827
1828        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1829        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1830
1831        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1833
1834    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1836
1837    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1838        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1839        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1842        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1843
1844    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1845        return expression.name
1846
1847    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1848        return expression.name
1849
1850    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1851        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1852
1853        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1854        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1855
1856        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1857        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1858        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1859
1860        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        if expressions:
1862            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1863            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1864
1865        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1866        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
1867
1868    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1869        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1870
1871    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1872        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1873        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1874        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1875        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1876        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1877        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1878        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1879        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1880        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1881        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1882        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1883        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1884        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1885
1886    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1887        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1888
1889    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1890        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1891        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1892        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1893        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1894
1895    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1898        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1899        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1900
1901    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1902        return ".".join(
1903            self.sql(part)
1904            for part in (
1905                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1906                expression.args.get("db"),
1907                expression.args.get("this"),
1908            )
1909            if part is not None
1910        )
1911
1912    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1913        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1914        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1915        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1916        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1917        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1918        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1919        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1920        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1921
1922        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1923        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1924            sample_pre_alias = sample
1925            sample_post_alias = ""
1926        else:
1927            sample_pre_alias = ""
1928            sample_post_alias = sample
1929
1930        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1931        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1932        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1933        joins = self.indent(
1934            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1935        )
1936        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1937
1938        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1939        if file_format:
1940            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1941            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1942            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1943
1944        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1945        if ordinality:
1946            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1947            alias = ""
1948
1949        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1950        if when:
1951            table = f"{table} {when}"
1952
1953        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1954        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1955
1956        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1957        if rows_from:
1958            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1959
1960        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1961
1962    def tablesample_sql(
1963        self,
1964        expression: exp.TableSample,
1965        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1966    ) -> str:
1967        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1968        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1969        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1970        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1971        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1972        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1973        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1974        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1975        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1976
1977        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1978        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1979            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1980
1981        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1982        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1983            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1984
1985        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1986        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1987            expr = f"({expr})"
1988
1989        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1990
1991    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1992        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1994
1995        if expression.this:
1996            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997            if not expressions:
1998                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1999
2000            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2001            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2002            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2003            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2004            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2005            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2006            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2007
2008        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2010
2011        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2012
2013        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2014        if include_nulls is not None:
2015            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2016        else:
2017            nulls = ""
2018
2019        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2020        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2021        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
2022
2023    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2024        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2025        kind = expression.text("kind")
2026        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2027        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
2028
2029    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2030        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
2031
2032    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2035        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2036        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2037        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2038        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2039        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2040        if self.RETURNING_END:
2041            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2042        else:
2043            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2044        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2045        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2046
2047    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2048        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2049
2050        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2051        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2052            args = self.expressions(expression)
2053            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2054            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2055            values = (
2056                f"({values})"
2057                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2058                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2059                else values
2060            )
2061            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2062
2063        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2064        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2065        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2066
2067        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2068
2069        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2070            row = tup.expressions
2071
2072            if i == 0 and column_names:
2073                row = [
2074                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2075                ]
2076
2077            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2078
2079        if self.pretty:
2080            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2081            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2082            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2083            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2084            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2085
2086        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2087        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2088        return f"({unions}){alias}"
2089
2090    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2091        return self.sql(expression, "this")
2092
2093    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2094    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2095        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2096        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2097        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2098
2099    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2100        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2101
2102    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2103        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2104        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
2105
2106    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2107        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2108        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
2109
2110    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2111        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2112        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
2113
2114    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2115        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2116        if group_by_all is True:
2117            modifier = " ALL"
2118        elif group_by_all is False:
2119            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2120        else:
2121            modifier = ""
2122
2123        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2124
2125        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2126        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2127        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2128
2129        groupings = csv(
2130            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2131            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2132            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2133            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2134            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2135        )
2136
2137        if (
2138            expression.expressions
2139            and groupings
2140            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2141        ):
2142            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2143
2144        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
2145
2146    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2147        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2148        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2149
2150    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2151        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2152        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2153        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2154        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2155        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2156        return start + connect
2157
2158    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2159        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2160
2161    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2162        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2163            side = None
2164        else:
2165            side = expression.side
2166
2167        op_sql = " ".join(
2168            op
2169            for op in (
2170                expression.method,
2171                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2172                side,
2173                expression.kind,
2174                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2175            )
2176            if op
2177        )
2178        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2179        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2180        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2181        using = expression.args.get("using")
2182
2183        if not on_sql and using:
2184            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2185
2186        this = expression.this
2187        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2188
2189        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2190        if exprs:
2191            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2192
2193        if on_sql:
2194            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2195            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2196            if using:
2197                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2198            else:
2199                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2200        elif not op_sql:
2201            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2202                return f" {this_sql}"
2203
2204            return f", {this_sql}"
2205
2206        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2207            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2208
2209        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2210
2211    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2212        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2213        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2214        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2215
2216    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2217        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2218
2219        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2220        if cross_apply is True:
2221            op = "INNER JOIN "
2222        elif cross_apply is False:
2223            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2224        else:
2225            op = ""
2226
2227        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2228
2229    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231
2232        if expression.args.get("view"):
2233            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2234            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2235            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2236            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2237            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2238            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2239
2240        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2241        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2242        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2243
2244    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246
2247        args = [
2248            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2249            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2250            if e
2251        ]
2252
2253        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2254        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2257
2258        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2259
2260    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        value = expression.expression
2263        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2264        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2265        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2266        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2267
2268    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2269        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2270        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2273        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2274        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2275        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2276        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2277
2278    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2279        expressions = (
2280            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2281        )
2282        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2283        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2284
2285    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2286        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2287
2288    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2289        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2290            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2291            return ""
2292
2293        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2295        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2296        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2297
2298        if wait is not None:
2299            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2300                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2301            else:
2302                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2303
2304        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2305
2306    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2307        text = expression.this or ""
2308        if expression.is_string:
2309            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2310        return text
2311
2312    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2313        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2314            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2315            text = "".join(
2316                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2317            )
2318
2319        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2320            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2321        )
2322
2323    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2324        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2325        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2326        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2327        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2328        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2329        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2330        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2331        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2332        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2333        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2334        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2335
2336    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2337        return "NULL"
2338
2339    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2340        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2341
2342    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2344        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2345        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2346        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2347
2348    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2349        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2350        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2351        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2352        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2353        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2354        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2355        interpolated_values = [
2356            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2357            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2358            else self.sql(e, "this")
2359            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2360        ]
2361        interpolate = (
2362            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2363        )
2364        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2365
2366    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2367        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2368
2369    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2370        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2371
2372    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2373        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2374
2375    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2376        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2377        asc = not desc
2378
2379        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2380        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2381        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2382        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2383        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2384
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386
2387        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2388        nulls_sort_change = ""
2389        if nulls_first and (
2390            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2391        ):
2392            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2393        elif (
2394            nulls_last
2395            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2396            and not nulls_are_last
2397        ):
2398            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2399
2400        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2401        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2402            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2403            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2404                self.unsupported(
2405                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2406                )
2407                nulls_sort_change = ""
2408            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2409                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2410                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2411            ):
2412                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2413                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2414                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2415
2416                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2417                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2418                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2419                    self.unsupported(
2420                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2421                    )
2422                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2423            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2424                if expression.this.is_int:
2425                    self.unsupported(
2426                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2427                    )
2428                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2429                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2430                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2431                nulls_sort_change = ""
2432
2433        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2434        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2435
2436        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2437
2438    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2439        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2440        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2441
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443
2444        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2445
2446    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2447        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2448        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2449        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2450        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2451        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2452        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2453        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2454        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2455        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2456        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2457        definition_sqls = [
2458            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2459            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2460        ]
2461        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2462        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2463        body = "".join(
2464            (
2465                partition,
2466                order,
2467                measures,
2468                rows,
2469                after,
2470                pattern,
2471                define,
2472            )
2473        )
2474        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2475        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2476        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2477
2478    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2479        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2480
2481        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2482            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2483        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2484            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2485
2486        return csv(
2487            *sqls,
2488            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2489            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2490            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2491            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2492            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2493            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2494            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2495            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2496            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2497            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2498            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2499            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2500            self.options_modifier(expression),
2501            sep="",
2502        )
2503
2504    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2505        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2506        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2507
2508    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2509        return ""
2510
2511    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2512        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2513    ) -> t.List[str]:
2514        return [
2515            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2516            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2517        ]
2518
2519    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2520        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2521        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2522        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2523
2524    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2525        into = expression.args.get("into")
2526        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2527            into.pop()
2528
2529        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2530        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2531        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2532        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2533
2534        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2535        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2536            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2537            limit.pop()
2538        else:
2539            top = ""
2540
2541        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2542
2543        if kind:
2544            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2545                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2546            else:
2547                if kind == "STRUCT":
2548                    expressions = self.expressions(
2549                        sqls=[
2550                            self.sql(
2551                                exp.Struct(
2552                                    expressions=[
2553                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2554                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2555                                        else e
2556                                        for e in expression.expressions
2557                                    ]
2558                                )
2559                            )
2560                        ]
2561                    )
2562                kind = ""
2563
2564        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2565        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2566
2567        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2568        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2569        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2570        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2571        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2572            expression,
2573            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2574            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2575            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2576        )
2577
2578        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2579        if expression.args.get("with"):
2580            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2581            expression.pop_comments()
2582
2583        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2584
2585        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2586            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2587                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2588            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2589                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2590            else:
2591                table_kind = ""
2592            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2593
2594        return sql
2595
2596    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2599        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2600
2601    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2602        if expression.expressions:
2603            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2604        return ""
2605
2606    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2607        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2608        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2609        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2610        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2611        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2612        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2613        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2614
2615    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2618
2619    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        kind = expression.text("kind")
2622        if kind:
2623            kind = f"{kind}."
2624        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2625
2626    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2627        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2628
2629    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2630        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2631        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2632        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2633        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2634            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2635
2636            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2637            expression.set("sample", None)
2638
2639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2640        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2641        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2642
2643    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2644        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2645        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2646
2647    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2648        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2649
2650        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2651        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2652
2653        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2654            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2655                alias.append("columns", offset)
2656
2657        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2658            columns = alias.columns
2659            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2660        else:
2661            alias = self.sql(alias)
2662
2663        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2664        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2665            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2666        else:
2667            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2668                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2669            elif offset:
2670                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2671            else:
2672                suffix = alias
2673
2674        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2675
2676    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2677        return ""
2678
2679    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2680        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2681        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2682
2683    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2686        order = expression.args.get("order")
2687        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2688        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2689        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2690        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2691
2692        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2693
2694        first = expression.args.get("first")
2695        if first is None:
2696            first = ""
2697        else:
2698            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2699
2700        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2701            return f"{this} {alias}"
2702
2703        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2704        return f"{this} ({args})"
2705
2706    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2707        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2708        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2709
2710    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2712        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2713        end = (
2714            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2715            or "CURRENT ROW"
2716        )
2717        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2718
2719    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2722        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2723
2724    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2727        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2728        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2729
2730    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2731        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2732    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2733        return apply_index_offset(
2734            expression.this,
2735            expression.expressions,
2736            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2737        )
2738
2739    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2740        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2741        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2743
2744    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2745        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2746
2747    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2750            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2751                this = self.wrap(this)
2752            return f"ANY{this}"
2753        return f"ANY {this}"
2754
2755    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2756        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2757
2758    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2761
2762        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2763            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2764            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2765
2766        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2767
2768        if default:
2769            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2770
2771        statements.append("END")
2772
2773        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2774            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2775
2776        return " ".join(statements)
2777
2778    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2781        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2782
2783    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2784        order = expression.args.get("order")
2785        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2786        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2787
2788    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2789        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2790        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2791        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2792
2793    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2794        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2795
2796        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2797            func_name = "LTRIM"
2798        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2799            func_name = "RTRIM"
2800        else:
2801            func_name = "TRIM"
2802
2803        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2804
2805    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2806        args = expression.expressions
2807        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2808            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2809
2810        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2811            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2812
2813        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2814            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2815
2816        return args
2817
2818    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2819        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2820
2821        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2822        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2823            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2824
2825        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2826
2827    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2828        return self.func(
2829            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2830        )
2831
2832    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2834        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2835
2836    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2838        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2839        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2840        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2841        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2842        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2843        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2844        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2845        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
2846
2847    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2848        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2849        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2850        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2851        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2852
2853    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2854        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2855
2856    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2857        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2858        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2859        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2860
2861    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2863
2864    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2865        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2866
2867        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2868            path = self.escape_str(path)
2869
2870        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2871            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2872
2873        return path
2874
2875    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2876        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2877            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2878            if not callable(transform):
2879                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2880                return ""
2881
2882            return transform(self, expression)
2883
2884        if isinstance(expression, int):
2885            return str(expression)
2886
2887        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2888            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2889            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2890        else:
2891            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2892            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2893
2894        return escaped
2895
2896    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2898
2899    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2900        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2901        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2902
2903        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2904        if unique_keys is not None:
2905            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2906        else:
2907            unique_keys = ""
2908
2909        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2910        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2911        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2912        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2913
2914        return self.func(
2915            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2916            *expression.expressions,
2917            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2918        )
2919
2920    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2921        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2922
2923    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2924        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2925        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2926        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2927        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2928        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2929        return self.func(
2930            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2931        )
2932
2933    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2936        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2937        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2938        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2939        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2940        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2941        return self.func(
2942            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2943            this,
2944            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2945        )
2946
2947    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2948        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2949        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2950        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2951
2952        if nested_schema:
2953            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2954
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2957        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2958        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2959
2960    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2961        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2962
2963    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2965        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2966        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2967        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2968        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2969        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2970        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2971        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2972        return self.func(
2973            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2974        )
2975
2976    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2978        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2979        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2980        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2981        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2982        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2983
2984    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2987        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2988        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2989        with_ = (
2990            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2991            if expressions
2992            else ""
2993        )
2994        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2995
2996    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2997        query = expression.args.get("query")
2998        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2999        field = expression.args.get("field")
3000        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3001
3002        if query:
3003            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3004        elif unnest:
3005            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3006        elif field:
3007            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3008        else:
3009            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3010
3011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
3012
3013    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3014        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
3015
3016    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3017        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3018        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3019            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3020        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3021
3022        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3023            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3024            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3025
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        if this:
3028            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3029            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3030
3031        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
3032
3033    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3034        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3035
3036    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3039        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3040        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3041        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3042        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
3043
3044    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3045        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3046        parent = expression.parent
3047        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3048        return self.func(
3049            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3050        )
3051
3052    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3053        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3054        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
3055
3056    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3057        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3058        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3060        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
3061
3062    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3063        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3064
3065    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3067        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3068        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
3069
3070    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3071        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3072
3073        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3074        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3075
3076        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3077            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3078        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3079            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3080
3081        return self.alias_sql(expression)
3082
3083    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3085
3086    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3088        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3089        return f"{this} AT {index}"
3090
3091    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3094        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
3095
3096    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3099        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
3100
3101    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "+")
3103
3104    def and_sql(
3105        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3106    ) -> str:
3107        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
3108
3109    def or_sql(
3110        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3111    ) -> str:
3112        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
3113
3114    def xor_sql(
3115        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3116    ) -> str:
3117        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
3118
3119    def connector_sql(
3120        self,
3121        expression: exp.Connector,
3122        op: str,
3123        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3124    ) -> str:
3125        if stack is not None:
3126            if expression.expressions:
3127                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3128            else:
3129                stack.append(expression.right)
3130                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3131                    for comment in expression.comments:
3132                        if comment:
3133                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3134                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3135            return op
3136
3137        stack = [expression]
3138        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3139        ops = set()
3140
3141        while stack:
3142            node = stack.pop()
3143            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3144                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3145            else:
3146                sql = self.sql(node)
3147                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3148                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3149                else:
3150                    sqls.append(sql)
3151
3152        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3153        return sep.join(sqls)
3154
3155    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3157
3158    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3160
3161    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3162        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3163
3164    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3166
3167    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3169
3170    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3171        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3172
3173    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3174        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3175        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3176        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3177        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3178        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3179        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3180        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3181
3182    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3183        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3184        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3185
3186    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3187        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3188            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3189        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3190
3191    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3192        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3193
3194    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3197        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3199        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3200        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3201
3202    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3204        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3205        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3206        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3207        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3208        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3209        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3210        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3211        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3212
3213    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3214        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3215        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3216        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3217        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3218
3219        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3220            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3221
3222        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3223
3224    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3225        return "BEGIN"
3226
3227    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3228        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3229        if chain is not None:
3230            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3231
3232        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3233
3234    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3235        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3236        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3237        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3238
3239    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3241
3242        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3243        if dtype:
3244            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3245            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3246            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3247            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3248            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3249
3250        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3251        if default:
3252            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3253
3254        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3255        if comment:
3256            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3257
3258        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3259        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3260
3261        if not drop and not allow_null:
3262            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3263
3264        if allow_null is not None:
3265            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3266            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3267
3268        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3269
3270    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3272        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3273            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3274        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3275
3276    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3277        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3280        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3281        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3282
3283    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3284        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3285            # Remove db from tables
3286            expression = expression.transform(
3287                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3288            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3290        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3291
3292    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3293        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3294        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3295        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3296        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3297
3298    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3299        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3300        return f"SET {exprs}"
3301
3302    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3303        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3304
3305        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3306            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3307        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3308            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3309        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3310            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3311        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3312            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3313        else:
3314            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3315
3316        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3317        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3318        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3319        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3320        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3321        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3322        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3323        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3324
3325        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
3326
3327    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3328        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3329            return self.expressions(
3330                expression,
3331                key="actions",
3332                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3333                skip_first=True,
3334            )
3335        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3336
3337    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3338        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3339        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3340        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3341
3342    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3343        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3344
3345    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3346        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3347
3348        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3349            case = exp.case()
3350            for arg in expression.expressions:
3351                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3352            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3353
3354        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3355
3356        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3357        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3358        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3359
3360    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3361        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3362
3363    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3364        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3365
3366    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3367        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3369        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3370        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3371
3372    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3373        return self.sql(
3374            exp.Cast(
3375                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3376                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3377            )
3378        )
3379
3380    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3381        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3382            return self.func(
3383                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3384            )
3385        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3386
3387    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3388        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3389
3390        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3391            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3392
3393        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3394            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3395                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3396
3397        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3398            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3399                return self.sql(
3400                    exp.cast(
3401                        l / r,
3402                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3403                    )
3404                )
3405
3406        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3407
3408    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3410
3411    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3413
3414    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3416
3417    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3418        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3419
3420    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3421        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3422
3423    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3425
3426    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3428
3429    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3431
3432    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3434
3435    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3437
3438    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3440
3441    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3442        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3443            return self.sql(
3444                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3445            )
3446        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3447
3448    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3450
3451    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3452        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3453
3454    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3455        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3456
3457    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3458        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3459
3460    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3461        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3462
3463    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3464        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3465
3466    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3467        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3468
3469    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3470        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3471
3472    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3473        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3474
3475    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3476        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3477
3478    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3480
3481    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3483
3484    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3485        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3486
3487    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3488        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3489            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3490            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3491
3492        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3493
3494    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3495        this = expression.this
3496        expr = expression.expression
3497
3498        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3499            this, expr = expr, this
3500        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3501            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3502                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3503
3504            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3505
3506        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3507
3508    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3509        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3510        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3513        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3514
3515    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3516        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3517        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3518        binary_type = type(expression)
3519
3520        while stack:
3521            node = stack.pop()
3522
3523            if type(node) is binary_type:
3524                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3525                if op_func:
3526                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3527
3528                stack.append(node.right)
3529                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3530                stack.append(node.left)
3531            else:
3532                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3533
3534        return "".join(sqls)
3535
3536    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3537        args = []
3538
3539        for key in expression.arg_types:
3540            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3541
3542            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3543                for value in arg_value:
3544                    args.append(value)
3545            elif arg_value is not None:
3546                args.append(arg_value)
3547
3548        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3549            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3550        else:
3551            name = expression.sql_name()
3552
3553        return self.func(name, *args)
3554
3555    def func(
3556        self,
3557        name: str,
3558        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3559        prefix: str = "(",
3560        suffix: str = ")",
3561        normalize: bool = True,
3562    ) -> str:
3563        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3564        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3565
3566    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3567        arg_sqls = tuple(
3568            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3569        )
3570        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3571            return self.indent(
3572                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3573            )
3574        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
3575
3576    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3577        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3578
3579    def format_time(
3580        self,
3581        expression: exp.Expression,
3582        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3583        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3584    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3585        return format_time(
3586            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3587            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3588            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3589        )
3590
3591    def expressions(
3592        self,
3593        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3594        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3595        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3596        flat: bool = False,
3597        indent: bool = True,
3598        skip_first: bool = False,
3599        skip_last: bool = False,
3600        sep: str = ", ",
3601        prefix: str = "",
3602        dynamic: bool = False,
3603        new_line: bool = False,
3604    ) -> str:
3605        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3606
3607        if not expressions:
3608            return ""
3609
3610        if flat:
3611            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3612
3613        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3614        result_sqls = []
3615
3616        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3617            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3618            if not sql:
3619                continue
3620
3621            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3622
3623            if self.pretty:
3624                if self.leading_comma:
3625                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3626                else:
3627                    result_sqls.append(
3628                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3629                    )
3630            else:
3631                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3632
3633        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3634            if new_line:
3635                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3636                result_sqls.append("")
3637            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3638        else:
3639            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3640
3641        return (
3642            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3643            if indent
3644            else result_sql
3645        )
3646
3647    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3648        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3649        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3650        if flat:
3651            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3652        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3653
3654    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3655        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3656        if not property_name:
3657            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3658        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3659
3660    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3661        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3662
3663    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3664        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3665
3666    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3668        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3669        expressions = (
3670            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3671        )
3672        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
3673
3674    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3676        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3677        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3678
3679    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3680        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3681
3682    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3683        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3684        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3685        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3686        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3687
3688        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3689        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3690            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3691            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3692            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3693            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3694        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3695            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3696                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3697            else:
3698                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3699        else:
3700            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3701        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3702
3703    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3704        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3705
3706    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3707        table = expression.this
3708        table_alias = ""
3709
3710        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3711        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3712            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3713            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3714
3715        this = self.sql(table)
3716        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3717        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3718        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3719
3720        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3721        if returning:
3722            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3723
3724        sep = self.sep()
3725
3726        return self.prepend_ctes(
3727            expression,
3728            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3729        )
3730
3731    @unsupported_args("format")
3732    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3733        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3734
3735    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3736        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3737            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3738            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3739
3740        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3741        if not fmt:
3742            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3743            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3744
3745        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3746
3747    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3749        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3750        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3751        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3752        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3753
3754    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3756        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3757        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3758        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3759
3760    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3761        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3762
3763    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3764        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3765
3766    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/table_bucket_part_index/CREATE_TABLE/
3767    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3768        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3769
3770    # https://docs.starrocks.io/docs/sql-reference/sql-statements/data-definition/CREATE_TABLE/#distribution_desc
3771    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3773        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3774        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3776        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3777        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3778        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
3779
3780    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3781        return ""
3782
3783    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3785        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3786        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3787        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3788        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3789
3790    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3792        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3793
3794        if having:
3795            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3796
3797        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3798
3799    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3800        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3801        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3802        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3803        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3804        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3805        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3806        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3807        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3808        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3809        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3810        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3811        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3812        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3813
3814    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3815        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3816        if key_block_size:
3817            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3818
3819        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3820        if using:
3821            return f"USING {using}"
3822
3823        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3824        if parser:
3825            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3826
3827        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3828        if comment:
3829            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3830
3831        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3832        if visible is not None:
3833            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3834
3835        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3836        if engine_attr:
3837            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3838
3839        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3840        if secondary_engine_attr:
3841            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3842
3843        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3844        return ""
3845
3846    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3847        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3848        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3849
3850    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3851        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3852        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3854        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3855        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3856        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3858        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3859        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3860        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3861        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3862
3863    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3864        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3865            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3866
3867        case = exp.Case().when(
3868            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3869            expression.args["true"],
3870            copy=False,
3871        )
3872        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3873        if else_cond:
3874            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3875
3876        return self.sql(case)
3877
3878    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3880        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3881        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3882        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3883        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3884        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3885
3886    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3887        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3888
3889    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3891
3892    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3893        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3894        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3895        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3896        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3897        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3898        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3899
3900    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3902        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3903        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3904
3905    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3907        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3908        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3909
3910    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3911        arg = expression.this
3912        if not arg.type:
3913            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3914
3915            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3916
3917        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3918            return self.sql(arg)
3919
3920        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3921        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3922
3923    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3924        this = expression.this
3925        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3926            return self.sql(this)
3927
3928        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3929
3930    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3931        this = expression.this
3932        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3933            return self.sql(this)
3934
3935        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
3936
3937    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3938        this = expression.this
3939        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3940            return self.sql(this)
3941
3942        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
3943
3944    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3945        this = expression.this
3946        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3947
3948        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3949            return self.sql(
3950                exp.cast(
3951                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3952                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3953                )
3954            )
3955
3956        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3957            return self.sql(this)
3958
3959        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3960
3961    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3962        return self.sql(
3963            exp.func(
3964                "DATEDIFF",
3965                expression.this,
3966                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3967                "day",
3968            )
3969        )
3970
3971    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3972        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3973            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3974
3975        unit = expression.text("unit")
3976        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3977            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3978
3979        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3980
3981    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3982        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3983
3984        return self.func(
3985            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3986        )
3987
3988    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3989        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3990            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3991            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3992            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3993            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3994
3995        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3996
3997        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3998        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3999            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4000
4001        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4002
4003    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4004        expression.set(
4005            "expressions",
4006            [
4007                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4008                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4009                else e
4010                for e in expression.expressions
4011            ],
4012        )
4013
4014        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4015
4016    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4017        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4018        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4019
4020        return f"{low} TO {high}"
4021
4022    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4023        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4024        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4025
4026        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4027
4028        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4029        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4030
4031        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4032        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4033
4034        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4035        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4036
4037        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4038        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4039
4040        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
4041
4042    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
4043    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
4044    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4045        to = expression.this
4046        value = expression.expression
4047        style = expression.args.get("style")
4048        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4049        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4050
4051        if not to or not value:
4052            return ""
4053
4054        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4055        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4056            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4057
4058        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4059        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4060
4061        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4062        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4063            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4064
4065            style_value = style.name
4066            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4067            if not converted_style:
4068                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4069
4070            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4071
4072            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4073                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4074            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4075                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4076            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4077                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4078            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4079                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4080
4081        if not transformed:
4082            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4083
4084        return self.sql(transformed)
4085
4086    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
4087        this = expression.this
4088        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
4089            this = self.json_path_part(this)
4090            return f".{this}" if this else ""
4091
4092        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
4093            return f".{this}"
4094
4095        this = self.json_path_part(this)
4096        return (
4097            f"[{this}]"
4098            if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED
4099            else f".{this}"
4100        )
4101
4102    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
4103        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
4104        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
4105
4106    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
4107        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
4108            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
4109
4110            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
4111
4112        return expression
4113
4114    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
4115        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
4116            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
4117            mods = sorted(
4118                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
4119                key=lambda x: 0
4120                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
4121                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
4122            )
4123
4124            if mods:
4125                mod = mods[0]
4126                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
4127                this.meta["inline"] = True
4128                mod.this.replace(this)
4129                return self.sql(expression.this)
4130
4131            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
4132
4133            if agg_func:
4134                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
4135
4136        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
4137
4138    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
4139        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
4140        if self.pretty:
4141            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
4142        return string
4143
4144    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4145        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4146
4147        if expression.expressions:
4148            upper = option.upper()
4149
4150            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4151            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4152
4153            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4154            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4155            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4156            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4157
4158        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4159
4160        if not value:
4161            return option
4162
4163        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4164
4165        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
4166
4167    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4168        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4169        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4170            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4171            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4172            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4173        else:
4174            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4175            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4176            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4177
4178        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4179        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4180
4181        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4182        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4183
4184        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4185        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4186
4187        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4188        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4189
4190        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4191
4192    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4194        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4195
4196        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4197        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4198        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4199        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4200
4201        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4202        params = self.expressions(
4203            expression,
4204            key="params",
4205            sep=sep,
4206            new_line=True,
4207            skip_last=True,
4208            skip_first=True,
4209            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4210        )
4211
4212        if params:
4213            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4214                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4215            elif not self.pretty:
4216                params = f" {params}"
4217
4218        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4219
4220    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4221        return ""
4222
4223    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4224        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4225        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4226        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4227        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4228        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4229
4230        if filter_col or retention_period:
4231            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4232
4233        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4234
4235    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4236        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4237    ) -> str:
4238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4240        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4241        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4242
4243    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4245        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4246        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4247
4248    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4249        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4250
4251    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4253        expr = expression.expression
4254
4255        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4256            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4257            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4258        else:
4259            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4260
4261        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4262
4263    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4264        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4265            return self.sql(expression.this)
4266
4267        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4268
4269    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4270        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4271        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4272
4273        if lower and upper:
4274            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4275        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4276
4277    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4278        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4279        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4280        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4281        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4282        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4283        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4284
4285        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4286
4287    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4288        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4289
4290        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4291        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4292            fill_pattern = "' '"
4293
4294        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4295
4296    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4297        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4298        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4299
4300    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4301        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4302
4303        parent = expression.parent
4304        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4305            parent = parent.parent
4306
4307        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4308            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4309
4310        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4311            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4312
4313        return self.sql(generate_series)
4314
4315    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4316        exprs = expression.expressions
4317        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4318            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4319        else:
4320            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4321
4322        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
4323
4324    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4325        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4326            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4327
4328        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4329        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4330        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4331
4332        if source_tz and timestamp:
4333            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4334                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4335            )
4336
4337        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4338
4339        return self.sql(expr)
4340
4341    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4343        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4344
4345        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4346
4347        if _with is None:
4348            with_sql = ""
4349        elif not _with:
4350            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4351        else:
4352            with_sql = " WITH"
4353
4354        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4355
4356        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4357
4358    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4359        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4360            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4361
4362        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4363        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4364        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4365
4366        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4367        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4368
4369        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
4370
4371    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4372        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4373        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4374        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4375        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4376        return f"{condition}{insert}"
4377
4378    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4379        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4380        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4381        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4382        return res
4383
4384    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4385        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4386        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4387        empty = (
4388            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4389            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4390            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4391        )
4392
4393        error = expression.args.get("error")
4394        error = (
4395            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4396            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4397            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4398        )
4399
4400        if error and empty:
4401            error = (
4402                f"{empty} {error}"
4403                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4404                else f"{error} {empty}"
4405            )
4406            empty = ""
4407
4408        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4409
4410        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
4411
4412    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4414        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4415
4416        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4417        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4418
4419        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4420        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4421
4422        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4423
4424        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
4425
4426    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4427        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4428
4429        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4430        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4431        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4432            parent = expression.parent
4433            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4434                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4435                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4436            else:
4437                this = expression.this
4438                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4439                if this.find(exp.Column):
4440                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4441                    this_sql = (
4442                        self.expressions(this)
4443                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4444                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4445                    )
4446
4447                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4448
4449        return array_agg
4450
4451    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4453        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4454
4455        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
4456
4457    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4458        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4459
4460        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4461        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4462
4463        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4464        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4465
4466        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4467
4468        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4469
4470        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
4471
4472    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4474        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4475        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4476
4477        return f"{this}{columns}"
4478
4479    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4481
4482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4483        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4484
4485        return f"{kind}{this}"
4486
4487    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4488        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4489        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4490            func = f"*{func}"
4491
4492        return func
4493
4494    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4496        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4497        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4498        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4499        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4500
4501        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
4502
4503    @unsupported_args("format")
4504    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4505        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
4506
4507    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4508        this = expression.this
4509        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4510
4511        if zone:
4512            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4513            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4514            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4515            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4516                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4517            )
4518
4519        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
4520
4521    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4522        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4523            return self.sql(
4524                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4525            )
4526
4527        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4528
4529    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4530        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4531        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4532        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4533        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
4534
4535    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4536        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4537            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4538
4539        start_ts = exp.cast(
4540            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4541        )
4542
4543        return self.sql(
4544            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4545        )
4546
4547    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4548        dim = expression.expression
4549
4550        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4551        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4552            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4553                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4554            dim = None
4555
4556        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4557        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4558            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4559
4560        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
4561
4562    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4564        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4565        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4566        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4567
4568        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
4569
4570    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4572        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4573
4574        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
4575
4576    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4578        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4579        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4580        return f"{this}{value}"
4581
4582    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4583        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4584        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4585            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4586
4587        return self.func(
4588            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4589            this_sql,
4590            expression.args.get("time"),
4591            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4592            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4593        )
4594
4595    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4596        return (
4597            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4598        )
4599
4600    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4601        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4602        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4603
4604        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4605        if properties:
4606            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4607
4608        return encode
4609
4610    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4612        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4613
4614        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4615        if column_def:
4616            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4617
4618        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4619        if alias:
4620            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4621
4622        return include
4623
4624    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4625        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4626        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
4627
4628    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4629        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4630        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4631        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
4632
4633    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4634        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4635    ) -> str:
4636        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4637        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4638
4639        every = expression.args["every"]
4640        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4641            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4642
4643        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
4644
4645    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4646        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4647        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4648
4649        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
4650
4651    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4653        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4654        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4655        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4656        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4657        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4658        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
667    def __init__(
668        self,
669        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
670        identify: str | bool = False,
671        normalize: bool = False,
672        pad: int = 2,
673        indent: int = 2,
674        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
675        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
676        max_unsupported: int = 3,
677        leading_comma: bool = False,
678        max_text_width: int = 80,
679        comments: bool = True,
680        dialect: DialectType = None,
681    ):
682        import sqlglot
683        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
684
685        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
686        self.identify = identify
687        self.normalize = normalize
688        self.pad = pad
689        self._indent = indent
690        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
691        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
692        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
693        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
694        self.comments = comments
695        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
696
697        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
698        self.normalize_functions = (
699            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
700        )
701
702        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
703        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
704            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
705        )
706        self._escaped_identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END * 2
707
708        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
709
710        self._identifier_start = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START
711        self._identifier_end = self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
712
713        self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets = True
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayContainsAll'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ArrayOverlaps'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Except'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Intersect'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Int64'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SwapTable'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Union'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Uuid'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE = True
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_MEDIAN = True
SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS = False
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
ARRAY_SIZE_NAME: str = 'ARRAY_LENGTH'
ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED: Optional[bool] = None
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.DATETIME2: 'DATETIME2'>: 'TIMESTAMP', <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY', <Type.SMALLDATETIME: 'SMALLDATETIME'>: 'TIMESTAMP'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES: Set[str] = set()
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Tags'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithProcedureOptions'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
715    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
716        """
717        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
718
719        Args:
720            expression: The syntax tree.
721            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
722                it is safer to copy.
723
724        Returns:
725            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
726        """
727        if copy:
728            expression = expression.copy()
729
730        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
731
732        self.unsupported_messages = []
733        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
734
735        if self.pretty:
736            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
737
738        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
739            return sql
740
741        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
742            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
743                logger.warning(msg)
744        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
745            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
746
747        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
749    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
750        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
751        expression = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
752
753        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
754            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
755
756            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
757
758        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
771    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
772        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
773            raise UnsupportedError(message)
774        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
776    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
777        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
779    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
780        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
782    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
783        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
784        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
785        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
787    def maybe_comment(
788        self,
789        sql: str,
790        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
791        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
792        separated: bool = False,
793    ) -> str:
794        comments = (
795            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
796            if self.comments
797            else None
798        )
799
800        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
801            return sql
802
803        comments_sql = " ".join(
804            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
805        )
806
807        if not comments_sql:
808            return sql
809
810        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
811
812        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
813            return (
814                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
815                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
816                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
817            )
818
819        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
821    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
822        this_sql = (
823            self.sql(expression)
824            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
825            else self.sql(expression, "this")
826        )
827        if not this_sql:
828            return "()"
829
830        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
831        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
833    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
834        original = self.identify
835        self.identify = False
836        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
837        self.identify = original
838        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
840    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
841        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
842            return name.upper()
843        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
844            return name.lower()
845        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
847    def indent(
848        self,
849        sql: str,
850        level: int = 0,
851        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
852        skip_first: bool = False,
853        skip_last: bool = False,
854    ) -> str:
855        if not self.pretty or not sql:
856            return sql
857
858        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
859        lines = sql.split("\n")
860
861        return "\n".join(
862            (
863                line
864                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
865                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
866            )
867            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
868        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
870    def sql(
871        self,
872        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
873        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
874        comment: bool = True,
875    ) -> str:
876        if not expression:
877            return ""
878
879        if isinstance(expression, str):
880            return expression
881
882        if key:
883            value = expression.args.get(key)
884            if value:
885                return self.sql(value)
886            return ""
887
888        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
889
890        if callable(transform):
891            sql = transform(self, expression)
892        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
893            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
894
895            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
896                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
897            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
898                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
899            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
900                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
901            else:
902                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
903        else:
904            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
905
906        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
908    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
909        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
910        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
911        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
913    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
914        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
915        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
916        options = expression.args.get("options")
917        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
918        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
919        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
920        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
921        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
923    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
924        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
925            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
926        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
927        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
929    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
930        return ".".join(
931            self.sql(part)
932            for part in (
933                expression.args.get("catalog"),
934                expression.args.get("db"),
935                expression.args.get("table"),
936                expression.args.get("this"),
937            )
938            if part
939        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
941    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
942        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
943
944        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
945            join_mark = ""
946            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
947
948        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
950    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
951        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
952        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
953        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
954        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
956    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
957        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
958        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
959        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
960        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
961        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
962        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
963        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
964        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
965
966        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
967            kind = ""
968
969        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
971    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
972        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
973        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
974        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
976    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
978        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
979            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
980        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
981            persisted = " PERSISTED"
982        else:
983            persisted = ""
984        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
986    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
987        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
989    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
990        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
991            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
992        else:
993            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
994
995        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
 997    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 998        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 999    ) -> str:
1000        this = ""
1001        if expression.this is not None:
1002            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
1003            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
1004
1005        start = expression.args.get("start")
1006        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1007        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
1008        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1009        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
1010        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1011        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
1012        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1013        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
1014        cycle_sql = ""
1015
1016        if cycle is not None:
1017            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
1018            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
1019
1020        sequence_opts = ""
1021        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
1022            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
1023            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
1024
1025        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1026        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
1027
1028        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
1030    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
1031        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
1032    ) -> str:
1033        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
1034        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
1035        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
1037    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
1038        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
1039    ) -> str:
1040        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1042    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
1043        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1045    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
1046        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1048    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
1049        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
1050        if desc is not None:
1051            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
1052        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1054    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
1055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1056        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1057        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
1058        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
1059        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
1060        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1061        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
1062        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
1064    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
1065        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
1067    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
1068        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1069        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1070        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
1071        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
1072
1073        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
1074
1075        properties_sql = ""
1076        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
1077            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
1078        ):
1079            properties_sql = self.sql(
1080                exp.Properties(
1081                    expressions=[
1082                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
1083                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1084                    ]
1085                )
1086            )
1087
1088            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1089                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1090            elif not self.pretty:
1091                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1092                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1093
1094        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1095        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1096
1097        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1098        if expression_sql:
1099            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1100
1101            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1102                postalias_props_sql = ""
1103                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1104                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1105                        exp.Properties(
1106                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1107                        ),
1108                        wrapped=False,
1109                    )
1110                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1111                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1112
1113        postindex_props_sql = ""
1114        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1115            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1116                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1117                wrapped=False,
1118                prefix=" ",
1119            )
1120
1121        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1122        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1123        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1124
1125        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1126        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1127        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1128
1129        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1130        if clustered is None:
1131            clustered_sql = ""
1132        elif clustered:
1133            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1134        else:
1135            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1136
1137        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1138        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1139            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1140                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1141                sep=" ",
1142                prefix=" ",
1143                wrapped=False,
1144            )
1145
1146        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1147
1148        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1149        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1150            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1151                exp.Properties(
1152                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1153                ),
1154                sep=" ",
1155                prefix=" ",
1156                wrapped=False,
1157            )
1158
1159        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1160        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1161        no_schema_binding = (
1162            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1163        )
1164
1165        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1166        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1167
1168        if kind in self.EXPRESSION_PRECEDES_PROPERTIES_CREATABLES:
1169            properties_expression = f"{expression_sql}{properties_sql}"
1170        else:
1171            properties_expression = f"{properties_sql}{expression_sql}"
1172
1173        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_expression}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1174        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1176    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1177        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1178        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1179        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1180        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1181        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1182        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1183        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1184        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1185        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1186        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1187
1188        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1189        if cache is None:
1190            cache_str = ""
1191        elif cache is True:
1192            cache_str = " CACHE"
1193        else:
1194            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1195
1196        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1197        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1198
1199        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1201    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1202        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1203        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1204        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1205        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1207    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1208        style = expression.args.get("style")
1209        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1210        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1211        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1212        format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1213        format = f" {format}" if format else ""
1214
1215        return f"DESCRIBE{style}{format} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1217    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1218        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1219        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1221    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1222        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1223        if with_:
1224            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1225        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1227    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1228        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1229        recursive = (
1230            "RECURSIVE "
1231            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1232            else ""
1233        )
1234
1235        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1237    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1238        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
1239        if alias:
1240            alias.add_comments(expression.pop_comments())
1241
1242        alias_sql = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1243
1244        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1245        if materialized is False:
1246            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1247        elif materialized:
1248            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1249
1250        return f"{alias_sql} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1252    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1253        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1254        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1255        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1256
1257        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1258            columns = ""
1259            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1260
1261        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1262            alias = self._next_name()
1263
1264        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1266    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1267        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1268        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1269            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1270        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1272    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1273        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1274        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1275            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1276        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1278    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1279        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1280        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1281            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1282        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1284    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1285        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1286        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1287
1288        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1289            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1290            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1291        else:
1292            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1293            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1294
1295        if escape:
1296            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1297            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1298        else:
1299            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1300            escape_sql = ""
1301
1302        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1303            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1304
1305        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1307    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1308        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1309        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1311    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1312        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1313        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1314        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1315        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1317    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1318        nested = ""
1319        values = ""
1320        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1321
1322        type_value = expression.this
1323        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1324            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1325        else:
1326            type_sql = (
1327                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1328                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1329                else type_value
1330            )
1331
1332        if interior:
1333            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1334                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1335                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1336                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1337                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1338                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1339            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1340                nested = f" {interior}"
1341            else:
1342                nested = f"({interior})"
1343
1344        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1345        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1346            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1347            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1348        ):
1349            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1350
1351        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1353    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1354        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1355        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1356        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1357        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1359    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1361        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1362        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1363        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1364        cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1365        cluster = f" {cluster}" if cluster else ""
1366        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1367        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1368        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1369        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1370        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1371        if self.RETURNING_END:
1372            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1373        else:
1374            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{cluster}{where}{limit}"
1375        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1377    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1379        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1380        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1381        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1382        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1383        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1384        concurrently_sql = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1385        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1386        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1387        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1388        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1389        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1390        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1391        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1392        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{concurrently_sql}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def set_operation(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1394    def set_operation(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1395        op_type = type(expression)
1396        op_name = op_type.key.upper()
1397
1398        distinct = expression.args.get("distinct")
1399        if (
1400            distinct is False
1401            and op_type in (exp.Except, exp.Intersect)
1402            and not self.EXCEPT_INTERSECT_SUPPORT_ALL_CLAUSE
1403        ):
1404            self.unsupported(f"{op_name} ALL is not supported")
1405
1406        default_distinct = self.dialect.SET_OP_DISTINCT_BY_DEFAULT[op_type]
1407
1408        if distinct is None:
1409            distinct = default_distinct
1410            if distinct is None:
1411                self.unsupported(f"{op_name} requires DISTINCT or ALL to be specified")
1412
1413        if distinct is default_distinct:
1414            kind = ""
1415        else:
1416            kind = " DISTINCT" if distinct else " ALL"
1417
1418        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1419        return f"{op_name}{kind}{by_name}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
1421    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
1422        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
1423            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
1424            order = expression.args.get("order")
1425
1426            if limit or order:
1427                select = self._move_ctes_to_top_level(
1428                    exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
1429                )
1430
1431                if limit:
1432                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
1433                if order:
1434                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
1435                return self.sql(select)
1436
1437        sqls: t.List[str] = []
1438        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
1439
1440        while stack:
1441            node = stack.pop()
1442
1443            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
1444                stack.append(node.expression)
1445                stack.append(
1446                    self.maybe_comment(
1447                        self.set_operation(node), comments=node.comments, separated=True
1448                    )
1449                )
1450                stack.append(node.this)
1451            else:
1452                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
1453
1454        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
1455        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
1456        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1458    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1459        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1460        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1461        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1462        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1463        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1464            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1465        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1466        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1468    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1469        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1470            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1472            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1473
1474        agg = expression.this
1475        agg_arg = agg.this
1476        cond = expression.expression.this
1477        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1478        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1480    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1481        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1482            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1483            return ""
1484
1485        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1487    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1488        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1489        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1490        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1491        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1492        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1493        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1494        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1495        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1496        if include:
1497            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1498        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1499        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1500        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1501        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1502        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1503        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1504
1505        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1507    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1508        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1509        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1510        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1511        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1512        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1513        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1514        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1515
1516        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1517
1518        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1519        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1521    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1522        text = expression.name
1523        lower = text.lower()
1524        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1525        text = text.replace(self._identifier_end, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1526        if (
1527            expression.quoted
1528            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1529            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1530            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1531        ):
1532            text = f"{self._identifier_start}{text}{self._identifier_end}"
1533        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1535    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1536        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1537        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1538            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1539
1540        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1542    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1543        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1544        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1545            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1546        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1548    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1549        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1550        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1551        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1552        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1553        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1555    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1556        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1557        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1559    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1560        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1562    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1563        root_properties = []
1564        with_properties = []
1565
1566        for p in expression.expressions:
1567            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1568            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1569                with_properties.append(p)
1570            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1571                root_properties.append(p)
1572
1573        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1574        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1575
1576        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1577            with_props = " " + with_props
1578
1579        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1581    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1582        if properties.expressions:
1583            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1584        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1586    def properties(
1587        self,
1588        properties: exp.Properties,
1589        prefix: str = "",
1590        sep: str = ", ",
1591        suffix: str = "",
1592        wrapped: bool = True,
1593    ) -> str:
1594        if properties.expressions:
1595            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1596            if expressions:
1597                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1598                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1599        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1601    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1602        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1604    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1605        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1606        for p in properties.expressions:
1607            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1608            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1609                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1610            else:
1611                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1612
1613        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1615    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1616        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1617            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1618        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1620    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1621        property_cls = expression.__class__
1622        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1623            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1624
1625        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1626        if not property_name:
1627            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1628
1629        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1631    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1632        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1633            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1634            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1635
1636            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1637            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1638                like = f"({like})"
1639
1640            return like
1641
1642        if expression.expressions:
1643            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1644
1645        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1646        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1648    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1649        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1650        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1651        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1653    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1654        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1655        local = expression.args.get("local")
1656        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1657        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1658        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1659        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1660        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1662    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1663        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1664        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1665        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1667    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1668        if expression.args.get("default"):
1669            property = "DEFAULT"
1670        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1671            property = "ON"
1672        else:
1673            property = "OFF"
1674        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1676    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1677        if expression.args.get("no"):
1678            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1679        if expression.args.get("default"):
1680            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1681
1682        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1683        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1685    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1686        default = expression.args.get("default")
1687        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1688        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1689        if default or minimum or maximum:
1690            if default:
1691                prop = "DEFAULT"
1692            elif minimum:
1693                prop = "MINIMUM"
1694            else:
1695                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1696            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1697        units = expression.args.get("units")
1698        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1699        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1701    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1702        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1703        always = expression.args.get("always")
1704        default = expression.args.get("default")
1705        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1706        never = expression.args.get("never")
1707
1708        if autotemp is not None:
1709            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1710        elif always:
1711            prop = "ALWAYS"
1712        elif default:
1713            prop = "DEFAULT"
1714        elif manual:
1715            prop = "MANUAL"
1716        elif never:
1717            prop = "NEVER"
1718        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1720    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1721        no = expression.args.get("no")
1722        no = " NO" if no else ""
1723        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1724        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1725        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1726        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1727        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1729    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1730        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1731            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1732        if expression.this:
1733            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1734            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1735            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1736
1737        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1738        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1739        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1741    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1742        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1743
1744        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1745        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1746            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1747        else:
1748            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1749
1750        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1752    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1753        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1754        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1755        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1756        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1757        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1758        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1759        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1761    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1762        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1763        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1764        statistics_sql = ""
1765        if statistics is not None:
1766            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1767        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1769    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1770        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1771        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1772        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1773        data_consistency = (
1774            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1775        )
1776        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1777        retention_period = (
1778            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1779        )
1780
1781        if this:
1782            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1783        else:
1784            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1785
1786        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1787
1788        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1790    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1791        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1792        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1793
1794        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1795            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1796        else:
1797            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1798
1799        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1800        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1801        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1802        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1803        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1804        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1805        if is_function:
1806            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1807        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1808
1809        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1810        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1811        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1812        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1813        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1814        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1815        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1816        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1817
1818        if self.RETURNING_END:
1819            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1820        else:
1821            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1822
1823        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1824        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1825        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1826        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1827
1828        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1829        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1830
1831        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1832        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1834    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1835        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1837    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1838        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1839        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1840        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1841        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1842        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1844    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1845        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1847    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1848        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1850    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1851        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1852
1853        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1854        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1855
1856        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1857        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1858        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1859
1860        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        if expressions:
1862            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1863            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1864
1865        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1866        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}{where}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1868    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1869        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1871    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1872        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1873        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1874        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1875        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1876        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1877        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1878        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1879        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1880        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1881        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1882        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1883        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1884        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1886    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1887        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1889    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1890        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1891        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1892        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1893        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1895    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1896        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1897        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1898        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1899        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1901    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1902        return ".".join(
1903            self.sql(part)
1904            for part in (
1905                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1906                expression.args.get("db"),
1907                expression.args.get("this"),
1908            )
1909            if part is not None
1910        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1912    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1913        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1914        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1915        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1916        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1917        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1918        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1919        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1920        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1921
1922        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1923        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1924            sample_pre_alias = sample
1925            sample_post_alias = ""
1926        else:
1927            sample_pre_alias = ""
1928            sample_post_alias = sample
1929
1930        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1931        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1932        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1933        joins = self.indent(
1934            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1935        )
1936        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1937
1938        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1939        if file_format:
1940            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1941            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1942            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1943
1944        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1945        if ordinality:
1946            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1947            alias = ""
1948
1949        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1950        if when:
1951            table = f"{table} {when}"
1952
1953        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1954        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1955
1956        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1957        if rows_from:
1958            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1959
1960        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1962    def tablesample_sql(
1963        self,
1964        expression: exp.TableSample,
1965        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1966    ) -> str:
1967        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1968        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1969        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1970        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1971        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1972        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1973        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1974        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1975        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1976
1977        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1978        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1979            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1980
1981        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1982        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1983            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1984
1985        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1986        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1987            expr = f"({expr})"
1988
1989        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1991    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1992        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1993        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1994
1995        if expression.this:
1996            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1997            if not expressions:
1998                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1999
2000            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
2001            into = self.sql(expression, "into")
2002            into = f"{self.seg('INTO')} {into}" if into else ""
2003            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
2004            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
2005            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
2006            return f"{direction} {this}{on}{into}{using}{group}"
2007
2008        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2009        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2010
2011        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
2012
2013        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
2014        if include_nulls is not None:
2015            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
2016        else:
2017            nulls = ""
2018
2019        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
2020        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
2021        return f"{self.seg(direction)}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
2023    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
2024        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
2025        kind = expression.text("kind")
2026        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2027        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
2029    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
2030        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
2032    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
2033        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2034        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2035        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2036        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
2037        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
2038        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2039        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
2040        if self.RETURNING_END:
2041            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
2042        else:
2043            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
2044        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
2045        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2047    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
2048        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
2049
2050        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
2051        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
2052            args = self.expressions(expression)
2053            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2054            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
2055            values = (
2056                f"({values})"
2057                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES
2058                and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, (exp.From, exp.Table)))
2059                else values
2060            )
2061            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
2062
2063        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
2064        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
2065        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
2066
2067        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
2068
2069        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
2070            row = tup.expressions
2071
2072            if i == 0 and column_names:
2073                row = [
2074                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
2075                ]
2076
2077            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
2078
2079        if self.pretty:
2080            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
2081            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
2082            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
2083            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
2084            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
2085
2086        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
2087        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
2088        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
2090    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
2091        return self.sql(expression, "this")
@unsupported_args('expressions')
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
2093    @unsupported_args("expressions")
2094    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
2095        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
2096        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
2097        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
2099    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
2100        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
2102    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
2103        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2104        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
2106    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
2107        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2108        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
2110    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
2111        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
2112        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
2114    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
2115        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
2116        if group_by_all is True:
2117            modifier = " ALL"
2118        elif group_by_all is False:
2119            modifier = " DISTINCT"
2120        else:
2121            modifier = ""
2122
2123        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
2124
2125        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
2126        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
2127        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
2128
2129        groupings = csv(
2130            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
2131            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
2132            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
2133            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
2134            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
2135        )
2136
2137        if (
2138            expression.expressions
2139            and groupings
2140            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
2141        ):
2142            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
2143
2144        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
2146    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
2147        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2148        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
2150    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
2151        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2152        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2153        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2154        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2155        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2156        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2158    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2159        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2161    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2162        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2163            side = None
2164        else:
2165            side = expression.side
2166
2167        op_sql = " ".join(
2168            op
2169            for op in (
2170                expression.method,
2171                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2172                side,
2173                expression.kind,
2174                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2175            )
2176            if op
2177        )
2178        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2179        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2180        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2181        using = expression.args.get("using")
2182
2183        if not on_sql and using:
2184            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2185
2186        this = expression.this
2187        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2188
2189        exprs = self.expressions(expression)
2190        if exprs:
2191            this_sql = f"{this_sql},{self.seg(exprs)}"
2192
2193        if on_sql:
2194            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2195            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2196            if using:
2197                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2198            else:
2199                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2200        elif not op_sql:
2201            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2202                return f" {this_sql}"
2203
2204            return f", {this_sql}"
2205
2206        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2207            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2208
2209        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2211    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2212        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2213        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2214        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2216    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2217        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2218
2219        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2220        if cross_apply is True:
2221            op = "INNER JOIN "
2222        elif cross_apply is False:
2223            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2224        else:
2225            op = ""
2226
2227        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2229    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2230        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2231
2232        if expression.args.get("view"):
2233            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2234            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2235            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2236            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2237            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2238            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2239
2240        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2241        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2242        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2244    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246
2247        args = [
2248            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2249            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2250            if e
2251        ]
2252
2253        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2254        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2255        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2256        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2257
2258        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2260    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2261        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2262        value = expression.expression
2263        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2264        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2265        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2266        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2268    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2269        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2270        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2272        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2273        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2274        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2275        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2276        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2278    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2279        expressions = (
2280            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2281        )
2282        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2283        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2285    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2286        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2288    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2289        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2290            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2291            return ""
2292
2293        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2294        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2295        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2296        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2297
2298        if wait is not None:
2299            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2300                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2301            else:
2302                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2303
2304        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2306    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2307        text = expression.this or ""
2308        if expression.is_string:
2309            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2310        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2312    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2313        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2314            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2315            text = "".join(
2316                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2317            )
2318
2319        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2320            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2321        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2323    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2324        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2325        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2326        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2327        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2328        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2329        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2330        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2331        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2332        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2333        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2334        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2336    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2337        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2339    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2340        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2342    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2343        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2344        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2345        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2346        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2348    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2349        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2350        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2351        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2352        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2353        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2354        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2355        interpolated_values = [
2356            f"{self.sql(e, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(e, 'this')}"
2357            if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2358            else self.sql(e, "this")
2359            for e in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2360        ]
2361        interpolate = (
2362            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2363        )
2364        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2366    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2367        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2369    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2370        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2372    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2373        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2375    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2376        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2377        asc = not desc
2378
2379        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2380        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2381        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2382        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2383        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2384
2385        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2386
2387        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2388        nulls_sort_change = ""
2389        if nulls_first and (
2390            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2391        ):
2392            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2393        elif (
2394            nulls_last
2395            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2396            and not nulls_are_last
2397        ):
2398            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2399
2400        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2401        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2402            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2403            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2404                self.unsupported(
2405                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2406                )
2407                nulls_sort_change = ""
2408            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is False and (
2409                (asc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS LAST")
2410                or (desc and nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST")
2411            ):
2412                # BigQuery does not allow these ordering/nulls combinations when used under
2413                # an aggregation func or under a window containing one
2414                ancestor = expression.find_ancestor(exp.AggFunc, exp.Window, exp.Select)
2415
2416                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.Window):
2417                    ancestor = ancestor.this
2418                if isinstance(ancestor, exp.AggFunc):
2419                    self.unsupported(
2420                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported for aggregate functions with {sort_order} sort order"
2421                    )
2422                    nulls_sort_change = ""
2423            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2424                if expression.this.is_int:
2425                    self.unsupported(
2426                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2427                    )
2428                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2429                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2430                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2431                nulls_sort_change = ""
2432
2433        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2434        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2435
2436        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2438    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2439        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2440        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2441
2442        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2443
2444        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2446    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2447        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2448        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2449        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2450        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2451        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2452        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2453        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2454        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2455        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2456        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2457        definition_sqls = [
2458            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2459            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2460        ]
2461        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2462        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2463        body = "".join(
2464            (
2465                partition,
2466                order,
2467                measures,
2468                rows,
2469                after,
2470                pattern,
2471                define,
2472            )
2473        )
2474        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2475        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2476        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2478    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2479        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2480
2481        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2482            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2483        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2484            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2485
2486        return csv(
2487            *sqls,
2488            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2489            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2490            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2491            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2492            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2493            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2494            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2495            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2496            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2497            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2498            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2499            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2500            self.options_modifier(expression),
2501            sep="",
2502        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2504    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2505        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2506        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2508    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2509        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2511    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2512        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2513    ) -> t.List[str]:
2514        return [
2515            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2516            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2517        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2519    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2520        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2521        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2522        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2524    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2525        into = expression.args.get("into")
2526        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2527            into.pop()
2528
2529        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2530        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2531        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2532        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2533
2534        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2535        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2536            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2537            limit.pop()
2538        else:
2539            top = ""
2540
2541        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2542
2543        if kind:
2544            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2545                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2546            else:
2547                if kind == "STRUCT":
2548                    expressions = self.expressions(
2549                        sqls=[
2550                            self.sql(
2551                                exp.Struct(
2552                                    expressions=[
2553                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2554                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2555                                        else e
2556                                        for e in expression.expressions
2557                                    ]
2558                                )
2559                            )
2560                        ]
2561                    )
2562                kind = ""
2563
2564        operation_modifiers = self.expressions(expression, key="operation_modifiers", sep=" ")
2565        operation_modifiers = f"{self.sep()}{operation_modifiers}" if operation_modifiers else ""
2566
2567        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2568        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2569        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2570        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2571        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2572            expression,
2573            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{operation_modifiers}{kind}{expressions}",
2574            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2575            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2576        )
2577
2578        # If both the CTE and SELECT clauses have comments, generate the latter earlier
2579        if expression.args.get("with"):
2580            sql = self.maybe_comment(sql, expression)
2581            expression.pop_comments()
2582
2583        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2584
2585        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2586            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2587                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2588            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2589                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2590            else:
2591                table_kind = ""
2592            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2593
2594        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2596    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2598        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2599        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2601    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2602        if expression.expressions:
2603            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2604        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2606    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2607        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2608        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2609        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2610        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2611        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2612        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2613        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2615    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2616        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2617        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2619    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2621        kind = expression.text("kind")
2622        if kind:
2623            kind = f"{kind}."
2624        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2626    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2627        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2629    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2630        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2631        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2632        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2633        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2634            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2635
2636            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2637            expression.set("sample", None)
2638
2639        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2640        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2641        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2643    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2644        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2645        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2647    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2648        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2649
2650        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2651        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2652
2653        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2654            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2655                alias.append("columns", offset)
2656
2657        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2658            columns = alias.columns
2659            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2660        else:
2661            alias = self.sql(alias)
2662
2663        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2664        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2665            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2666        else:
2667            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2668                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2669            elif offset:
2670                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2671            else:
2672                suffix = alias
2673
2674        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2676    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2677        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2679    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2680        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2681        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2683    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2684        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2685        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2686        order = expression.args.get("order")
2687        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2688        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2689        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2690        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2691
2692        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2693
2694        first = expression.args.get("first")
2695        if first is None:
2696            first = ""
2697        else:
2698            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2699
2700        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2701            return f"{this} {alias}"
2702
2703        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2704        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2706    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2707        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2708        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2710    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2711        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2712        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2713        end = (
2714            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2715            or "CURRENT ROW"
2716        )
2717        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2719    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2721        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2722        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2724    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2725        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2726        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2727        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2728        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket, index_offset: Optional[int] = None) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2730    def bracket_offset_expressions(
2731        self, expression: exp.Bracket, index_offset: t.Optional[int] = None
2732    ) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2733        return apply_index_offset(
2734            expression.this,
2735            expression.expressions,
2736            (index_offset or self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET) - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2737        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2739    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2740        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2741        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2742        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2744    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2745        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2747    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2749        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2750            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2751                this = self.wrap(this)
2752            return f"ANY{this}"
2753        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2755    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2756        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2758    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2761
2762        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2763            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2764            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2765
2766        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2767
2768        if default:
2769            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2770
2771        statements.append("END")
2772
2773        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2774            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2775
2776        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2778    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2779        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2780        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2781        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2783    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2784        order = expression.args.get("order")
2785        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2786        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2788    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2789        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2790        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2791        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2793    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2794        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2795
2796        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2797            func_name = "LTRIM"
2798        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2799            func_name = "RTRIM"
2800        else:
2801            func_name = "TRIM"
2802
2803        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2805    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2806        args = expression.expressions
2807        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2808            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2809
2810        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2811            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2812
2813        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2814            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2815
2816        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2818    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2819        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2820
2821        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2822        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2823            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2824
2825        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2827    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2828        return self.func(
2829            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2830        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2832    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2834        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2836    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2837        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2838        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2839        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2840        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2841        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2842        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2843        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2844        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2845        return f"FOREIGN KEY{expressions}{reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2847    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2848        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2849        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2850        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2851        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2853    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2854        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2856    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2857        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2858        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2859        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2861    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2862        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2864    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2865        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2866
2867        if expression.args.get("escape"):
2868            path = self.escape_str(path)
2869
2870        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2871            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2872
2873        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2875    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2876        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2877            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2878            if not callable(transform):
2879                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2880                return ""
2881
2882            return transform(self, expression)
2883
2884        if isinstance(expression, int):
2885            return str(expression)
2886
2887        if self._quote_json_path_key_using_brackets and self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2888            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2889            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2890        else:
2891            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2892            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2893
2894        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2896    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2897        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2899    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2900        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2901        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2902
2903        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2904        if unique_keys is not None:
2905            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2906        else:
2907            unique_keys = ""
2908
2909        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2910        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2911        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2912        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2913
2914        return self.func(
2915            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2916            *expression.expressions,
2917            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2918        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2920    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2921        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2923    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2924        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2925        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2926        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2927        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2928        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2929        return self.func(
2930            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2931        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2933    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2934        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2935        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2936        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2937        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2938        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2939        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2940        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2941        return self.func(
2942            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2943            this,
2944            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2945        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2947    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2948        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2949        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2950        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2951
2952        if nested_schema:
2953            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2954
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2957        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2958        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2960    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2961        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2963    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2964        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2965        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2966        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2967        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2968        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2969        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2970        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2971        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2972        return self.func(
2973            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2974        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2976    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2977        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2978        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2979        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2980        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2981        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2982        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2984    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2985        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2986        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2987        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2988        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2989        with_ = (
2990            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2991            if expressions
2992            else ""
2993        )
2994        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2996    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2997        query = expression.args.get("query")
2998        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2999        field = expression.args.get("field")
3000        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
3001
3002        if query:
3003            in_sql = self.sql(query)
3004        elif unnest:
3005            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
3006        elif field:
3007            in_sql = self.sql(field)
3008        else:
3009            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
3010
3011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
3013    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
3014        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
3016    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
3017        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
3018        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
3019            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
3020        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
3021
3022        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
3023            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
3024            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
3025
3026        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3027        if this:
3028            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
3029            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
3030
3031        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
3033    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
3034        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
3036    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
3037        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3038        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3039        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3040        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
3041        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3042        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
3044    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
3045        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
3046        parent = expression.parent
3047        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
3048        return self.func(
3049            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
3050        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
3052    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
3053        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
3054        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
3056    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
3057        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
3058        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
3060        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
3062    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
3063        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
3065    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
3066        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
3067        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
3068        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
3070    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
3071        alias = expression.args["alias"]
3072
3073        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
3074        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
3075
3076        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3077            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
3078        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
3079            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
3080
3081        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
3083    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
3084        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3086    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3087        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3088        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3089        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3091    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
3092        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3093        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3094        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3096    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
3099        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
3101    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
3102        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3104    def and_sql(
3105        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3106    ) -> str:
3107        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3109    def or_sql(
3110        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3111    ) -> str:
3112        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3114    def xor_sql(
3115        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
3116    ) -> str:
3117        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
3119    def connector_sql(
3120        self,
3121        expression: exp.Connector,
3122        op: str,
3123        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3124    ) -> str:
3125        if stack is not None:
3126            if expression.expressions:
3127                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
3128            else:
3129                stack.append(expression.right)
3130                if expression.comments and self.comments:
3131                    for comment in expression.comments:
3132                        if comment:
3133                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
3134                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
3135            return op
3136
3137        stack = [expression]
3138        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3139        ops = set()
3140
3141        while stack:
3142            node = stack.pop()
3143            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3144                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3145            else:
3146                sql = self.sql(node)
3147                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3148                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3149                else:
3150                    sqls.append(sql)
3151
3152        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3153        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3155    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3156        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3158    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3159        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3161    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3162        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3164    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3165        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3167    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3168        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3170    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3171        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3173    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3174        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3175        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3176        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3177        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3178        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3179        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3180        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3182    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3183        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3184        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3186    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3187        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3188            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3189        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3191    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3192        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3194    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3195        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3196        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3197        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3198        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3199        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3200        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3202    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3204        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3205        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3206        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3207        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3208        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3209        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3210        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3211        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3213    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3214        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3215        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3216        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3217        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3218
3219        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3220            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3221
3222        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3224    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3225        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3227    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3228        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3229        if chain is not None:
3230            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3231
3232        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3234    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3235        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3236        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3237        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3239    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3240        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3241
3242        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3243        if dtype:
3244            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3245            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3246            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3247            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3248            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3249
3250        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3251        if default:
3252            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3253
3254        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3255        if comment:
3256            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3257
3258        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3259        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3260
3261        if not drop and not allow_null:
3262            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3263
3264        if allow_null is not None:
3265            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3266            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3267
3268        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3270    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3271        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3272        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3273            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3274        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3276    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3277        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3278        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3279        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3280        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3281        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def alterrename_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterRename) -> str:
3283    def alterrename_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterRename) -> str:
3284        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3285            # Remove db from tables
3286            expression = expression.transform(
3287                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3288            ).assert_is(exp.AlterRename)
3289        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3290        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3292    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3293        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3294        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3295        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3296        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3298    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3299        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3300        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3302    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3303        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3304
3305        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3306            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3307        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3308            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3309        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3310            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3311        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3312            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3313        else:
3314            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3315
3316        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3317        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3318        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3319        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3320        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3321        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3322        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3323        not_valid = " NOT VALID" if expression.args.get("not_valid") else ""
3324
3325        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{not_valid}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3327    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3328        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3329            return self.expressions(
3330                expression,
3331                key="actions",
3332                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3333                skip_first=True,
3334            )
3335        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3337    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3338        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3339        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3340        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3342    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3343        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3345    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3346        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3347
3348        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3349            case = exp.case()
3350            for arg in expression.expressions:
3351                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3352            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3353
3354        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3355
3356        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3357        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3358        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3360    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3361        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3363    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3364        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3366    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3367        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3369        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3370        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3372    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3373        return self.sql(
3374            exp.Cast(
3375                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3376                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3377            )
3378        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3380    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3381        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3382            return self.func(
3383                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3384            )
3385        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3387    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3388        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3389
3390        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3391            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3392
3393        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3394            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3395                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3396
3397        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3398            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3399                return self.sql(
3400                    exp.cast(
3401                        l / r,
3402                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3403                    )
3404                )
3405
3406        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3408    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3409        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3411    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3412        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3414    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3415        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3417    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3418        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3420    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3421        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3423    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3424        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3426    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3427        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3429    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3430        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3432    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3433        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3435    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3436        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3438    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3439        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3441    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3442        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3443            return self.sql(
3444                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3445            )
3446        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3448    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3449        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3451    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3452        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3454    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3455        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3457    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3458        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3460    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3461        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3463    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3464        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3466    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3467        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3469    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3470        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3472    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3473        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3475    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3476        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3478    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3479        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3481    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3482        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3484    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3485        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3487    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3488        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3489            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3490            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3491
3492        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3494    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3495        this = expression.this
3496        expr = expression.expression
3497
3498        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3499            this, expr = expr, this
3500        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3501            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3502                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3503
3504            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3505
3506        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3508    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3509        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3510        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3511        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3512        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3513        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3515    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3516        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3517        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3518        binary_type = type(expression)
3519
3520        while stack:
3521            node = stack.pop()
3522
3523            if type(node) is binary_type:
3524                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3525                if op_func:
3526                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3527
3528                stack.append(node.right)
3529                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3530                stack.append(node.left)
3531            else:
3532                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3533
3534        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3536    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3537        args = []
3538
3539        for key in expression.arg_types:
3540            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3541
3542            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3543                for value in arg_value:
3544                    args.append(value)
3545            elif arg_value is not None:
3546                args.append(arg_value)
3547
3548        if self.dialect.PRESERVE_ORIGINAL_NAMES:
3549            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3550        else:
3551            name = expression.sql_name()
3552
3553        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3555    def func(
3556        self,
3557        name: str,
3558        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3559        prefix: str = "(",
3560        suffix: str = ")",
3561        normalize: bool = True,
3562    ) -> str:
3563        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3564        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args( self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], sep: str = ', ') -> str:
3566    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression], sep: str = ", ") -> str:
3567        arg_sqls = tuple(
3568            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3569        )
3570        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3571            return self.indent(
3572                "\n" + f"{sep.strip()}\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True
3573            )
3574        return sep.join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3576    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3577        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3579    def format_time(
3580        self,
3581        expression: exp.Expression,
3582        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3583        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3584    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3585        return format_time(
3586            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3587            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3588            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3589        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3591    def expressions(
3592        self,
3593        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3594        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3595        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3596        flat: bool = False,
3597        indent: bool = True,
3598        skip_first: bool = False,
3599        skip_last: bool = False,
3600        sep: str = ", ",
3601        prefix: str = "",
3602        dynamic: bool = False,
3603        new_line: bool = False,
3604    ) -> str:
3605        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3606
3607        if not expressions:
3608            return ""
3609
3610        if flat:
3611            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3612
3613        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3614        result_sqls = []
3615
3616        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3617            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3618            if not sql:
3619                continue
3620
3621            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3622
3623            if self.pretty:
3624                if self.leading_comma:
3625                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3626                else:
3627                    result_sqls.append(
3628                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3629                    )
3630            else:
3631                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3632
3633        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3634            if new_line:
3635                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3636                result_sqls.append("")
3637            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3638        else:
3639            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3640
3641        return (
3642            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3643            if indent
3644            else result_sql
3645        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3647    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3648        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3649        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3650        if flat:
3651            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3652        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3654    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3655        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3656        if not property_name:
3657            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3658        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3660    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3661        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3663    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3664        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3666    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3667        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3668        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3669        expressions = (
3670            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3671        )
3672        return f"{this}{expressions}" if expressions.strip() != "" else this
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3674    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3675        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3676        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3677        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3679    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3680        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3682    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3683        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3684        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3685        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3686        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3687
3688        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3689        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3690            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3691            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3692            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3693            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3694        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3695            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3696                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3697            else:
3698                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3699        else:
3700            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3701        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def whens_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Whens) -> str:
3703    def whens_sql(self, expression: exp.Whens) -> str:
3704        return self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3706    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3707        table = expression.this
3708        table_alias = ""
3709
3710        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3711        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3712            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3713            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3714
3715        this = self.sql(table)
3716        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3717        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3718        whens = self.sql(expression, "whens")
3719
3720        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
3721        if returning:
3722            whens = f"{whens}{returning}"
3723
3724        sep = self.sep()
3725
3726        return self.prepend_ctes(
3727            expression,
3728            f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{whens}",
3729        )
@unsupported_args('format')
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3731    @unsupported_args("format")
3732    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3733        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3735    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3736        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3737            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3738            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3739
3740        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3741        if not fmt:
3742            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3743            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3744
3745        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3747    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3748        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3749        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3750        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3751        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3752        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3754    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3755        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3756        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3757        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3758        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3760    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3761        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3763    def duplicatekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DuplicateKeyProperty) -> str:
3764        return f"DUPLICATE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3767    def uniquekeyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueKeyProperty) -> str:
3768        return f"UNIQUE KEY ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3771    def distributedbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DistributedByProperty) -> str:
3772        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3773        expressions = f" {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else ""
3774        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3775        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3776        buckets = f" BUCKETS {buckets}" if buckets else ""
3777        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
3778        return f"DISTRIBUTED BY {kind}{expressions}{buckets}{order}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3780    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3781        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3783    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3784        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3785        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3786        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3787        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3788        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3790    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3792        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3793
3794        if having:
3795            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3796
3797        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3799    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3800        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3801        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3802        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3803        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3804        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3805        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3806        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3807        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3808        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3809        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3810        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3811        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3812        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3814    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3815        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3816        if key_block_size:
3817            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3818
3819        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3820        if using:
3821            return f"USING {using}"
3822
3823        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3824        if parser:
3825            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3826
3827        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3828        if comment:
3829            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3830
3831        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3832        if visible is not None:
3833            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3834
3835        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3836        if engine_attr:
3837            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3838
3839        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3840        if secondary_engine_attr:
3841            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3842
3843        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3844        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3846    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3847        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3848        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3850    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3851        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3852        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3853        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3854        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3855        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3856        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3857        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3858        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3859        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3860        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3861        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3863    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3864        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3865            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3866
3867        case = exp.Case().when(
3868            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3869            expression.args["true"],
3870            copy=False,
3871        )
3872        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3873        if else_cond:
3874            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3875
3876        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3878    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3879        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3880        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3881        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3882        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3883        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3884        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3886    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3887        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3889    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3890        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3892    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3893        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3894        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3895        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3896        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3897        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3898        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3900    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3901        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3902        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3903        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3905    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3907        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3908        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3910    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3911        arg = expression.this
3912        if not arg.type:
3913            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3914
3915            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3916
3917        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3918            return self.sql(arg)
3919
3920        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3921        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3923    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3924        this = expression.this
3925        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3926            return self.sql(this)
3927
3928        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3930    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3931        this = expression.this
3932        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3933            return self.sql(this)
3934
3935        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP, dialect=self.dialect))
def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3937    def tsordstodatetime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) -> str:
3938        this = expression.this
3939        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDatetime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME):
3940            return self.sql(this)
3941
3942        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, dialect=self.dialect))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3944    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3945        this = expression.this
3946        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3947
3948        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3949            return self.sql(
3950                exp.cast(
3951                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3952                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3953                )
3954            )
3955
3956        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3957            return self.sql(this)
3958
3959        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3961    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3962        return self.sql(
3963            exp.func(
3964                "DATEDIFF",
3965                expression.this,
3966                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3967                "day",
3968            )
3969        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3971    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3972        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3973            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3974
3975        unit = expression.text("unit")
3976        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3977            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3978
3979        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3981    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3982        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3983
3984        return self.func(
3985            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3986        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3988    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3989        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3990            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3991            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3992            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3993            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3994
3995        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3996
3997        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3998        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3999            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
4000
4001        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
4003    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
4004        expression.set(
4005            "expressions",
4006            [
4007                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
4008                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
4009                else e
4010                for e in expression.expressions
4011            ],
4012        )
4013
4014        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
4016    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
4017        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
4018        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4019
4020        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
4022    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
4023        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
4024        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
4025
4026        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4027
4028        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
4029        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
4030
4031        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
4032        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
4033
4034        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
4035        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
4036
4037        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
4038        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
4039
4040        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
4044    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
4045        to = expression.this
4046        value = expression.expression
4047        style = expression.args.get("style")
4048        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
4049        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
4050
4051        if not to or not value:
4052            return ""
4053
4054        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
4055        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4056            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
4057
4058        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
4059        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
4060
4061        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
4062        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
4063            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
4064
4065            style_value = style.name
4066            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
4067            if not converted_style:
4068                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
4069
4070            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
4071
4072            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
4073                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
4074            elif to.this in (exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME, exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME2):
4075                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
4076            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
4077                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
4078            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
4079                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
4080
4081        if not transformed:
4082            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
4083
4084        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
4144    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
4145        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
4146
4147        if expression.expressions:
4148            upper = option.upper()
4149
4150            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
4151            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
4152
4153            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
4154            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
4155            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
4156            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
4157
4158        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4159
4160        if not value:
4161            return option
4162
4163        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
4164
4165        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
4167    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
4168        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
4169        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
4170            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
4171            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4172            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
4173        else:
4174            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
4175            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
4176            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
4177
4178        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
4179        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
4180
4181        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4182        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4183
4184        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4185        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4186
4187        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4188        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4189
4190        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4192    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4193        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4194        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4195
4196        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4197        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4198        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4199        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4200
4201        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4202        params = self.expressions(
4203            expression,
4204            key="params",
4205            sep=sep,
4206            new_line=True,
4207            skip_last=True,
4208            skip_first=True,
4209            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4210        )
4211
4212        if params:
4213            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4214                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4215            elif not self.pretty:
4216                params = f" {params}"
4217
4218        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4220    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4221        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4223    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4224        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4225        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4226        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4227        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4228        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4229
4230        if filter_col or retention_period:
4231            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4232
4233        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4235    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4236        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4237    ) -> str:
4238        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4239        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4240        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4241        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4243    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4245        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4246        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4248    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4249        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4251    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4252        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4253        expr = expression.expression
4254
4255        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4256            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4257            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4258        else:
4259            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4260
4261        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4263    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4264        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4265            return self.sql(expression.this)
4266
4267        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4269    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4270        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4271        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4272
4273        if lower and upper:
4274            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4275        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4277    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4278        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4279        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4280        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4281        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4282        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4283        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4284
4285        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4287    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4288        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4289
4290        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4291        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4292            fill_pattern = "' '"
4293
4294        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4296    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4297        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4298        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4300    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4301        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4302
4303        parent = expression.parent
4304        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4305            parent = parent.parent
4306
4307        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4308            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4309
4310        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4311            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4312
4313        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4315    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4316        exprs = expression.expressions
4317        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4318            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4319        else:
4320            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4321
4322        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs or None)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4324    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4325        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4326            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4327
4328        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4329        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4330        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4331
4332        if source_tz and timestamp:
4333            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4334                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4335            )
4336
4337        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4338
4339        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4341    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4342        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4343        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4344
4345        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4346
4347        if _with is None:
4348            with_sql = ""
4349        elif not _with:
4350            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4351        else:
4352            with_sql = " WITH"
4353
4354        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4355
4356        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4358    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4359        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4360            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4361
4362        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4363        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4364        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4365
4366        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4367        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4368
4369        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_condition}")
def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4371    def conditionalinsert_sql(self, expression: exp.ConditionalInsert) -> str:
4372        else_ = "ELSE " if expression.args.get("else_") else ""
4373        condition = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4374        condition = f"WHEN {condition} THEN " if condition else else_
4375        insert = self.sql(expression, "this")[len("INSERT") :].strip()
4376        return f"{condition}{insert}"
def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4378    def multitableinserts_sql(self, expression: exp.MultitableInserts) -> str:
4379        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4380        expressions = self.seg(self.expressions(expression, sep=" "))
4381        res = f"INSERT {kind}{expressions}{self.seg(self.sql(expression, 'source'))}"
4382        return res
def oncondition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCondition) -> str:
4384    def oncondition_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCondition) -> str:
4385        # Static options like "NULL ON ERROR" are stored as strings, in contrast to "DEFAULT <expr> ON ERROR"
4386        empty = expression.args.get("empty")
4387        empty = (
4388            f"DEFAULT {empty} ON EMPTY"
4389            if isinstance(empty, exp.Expression)
4390            else self.sql(expression, "empty")
4391        )
4392
4393        error = expression.args.get("error")
4394        error = (
4395            f"DEFAULT {error} ON ERROR"
4396            if isinstance(error, exp.Expression)
4397            else self.sql(expression, "error")
4398        )
4399
4400        if error and empty:
4401            error = (
4402                f"{empty} {error}"
4403                if self.dialect.ON_CONDITION_EMPTY_BEFORE_ERROR
4404                else f"{error} {empty}"
4405            )
4406            empty = ""
4407
4408        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
4409
4410        return f"{empty}{error}{null}"
def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONExists) -> str:
4412    def jsonexists_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONExists) -> str:
4413        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4414        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4415
4416        passing = self.expressions(expression, "passing")
4417        passing = f" PASSING {passing}" if passing else ""
4418
4419        on_condition = self.sql(expression, "on_condition")
4420        on_condition = f" {on_condition}" if on_condition else ""
4421
4422        path = f"{path}{passing}{on_condition}"
4423
4424        return self.func("JSON_EXISTS", this, path)
def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4426    def arrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAgg) -> str:
4427        array_agg = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4428
4429        # Add a NULL FILTER on the column to mimic the results going from a dialect that excludes nulls
4430        # on ARRAY_AGG (e.g Spark) to one that doesn't (e.g. DuckDB)
4431        if self.dialect.ARRAY_AGG_INCLUDES_NULLS and expression.args.get("nulls_excluded"):
4432            parent = expression.parent
4433            if isinstance(parent, exp.Filter):
4434                parent_cond = parent.expression.this
4435                parent_cond.replace(parent_cond.and_(expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_()))
4436            else:
4437                this = expression.this
4438                # Do not add the filter if the input is not a column (e.g. literal, struct etc)
4439                if this.find(exp.Column):
4440                    # DISTINCT is already present in the agg function, do not propagate it to FILTER as well
4441                    this_sql = (
4442                        self.expressions(this)
4443                        if isinstance(this, exp.Distinct)
4444                        else self.sql(expression, "this")
4445                    )
4446
4447                    array_agg = f"{array_agg} FILTER(WHERE {this_sql} IS NOT NULL)"
4448
4449        return array_agg
def apply_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Apply) -> str:
4451    def apply_sql(self, expression: exp.Apply) -> str:
4452        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4453        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4454
4455        return f"{this} APPLY({expr})"
def grant_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Grant) -> str:
4457    def grant_sql(self, expression: exp.Grant) -> str:
4458        privileges_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="privileges", flat=True)
4459
4460        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4461        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
4462
4463        securable = self.sql(expression, "securable")
4464        securable = f" {securable}" if securable else ""
4465
4466        principals = self.expressions(expression, key="principals", flat=True)
4467
4468        grant_option = " WITH GRANT OPTION" if expression.args.get("grant_option") else ""
4469
4470        return f"GRANT {privileges_sql} ON{kind}{securable} TO {principals}{grant_option}"
def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrivilege):
4472    def grantprivilege_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrivilege):
4473        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4474        columns = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4475        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
4476
4477        return f"{this}{columns}"
def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GrantPrincipal):
4479    def grantprincipal_sql(self, expression: exp.GrantPrincipal):
4480        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4481
4482        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
4483        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
4484
4485        return f"{kind}{this}"
def columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Columns):
4487    def columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Columns):
4488        func = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4489        if expression.args.get("unpack"):
4490            func = f"*{func}"
4491
4492        return func
def overlay_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlay):
4494    def overlay_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlay):
4495        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4496        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4497        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
4498        for_sql = self.sql(expression, "for")
4499        for_sql = f" FOR {for_sql}" if for_sql else ""
4500
4501        return f"OVERLAY({this} PLACING {expr} FROM {from_sql}{for_sql})"
@unsupported_args('format')
def todouble_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToDouble) -> str:
4503    @unsupported_args("format")
4504    def todouble_sql(self, expression: exp.ToDouble) -> str:
4505        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
def string_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.String) -> str:
4507    def string_sql(self, expression: exp.String) -> str:
4508        this = expression.this
4509        zone = expression.args.get("zone")
4510
4511        if zone:
4512            # This is a BigQuery specific argument for STRING(<timestamp_expr>, <time_zone>)
4513            # BigQuery stores timestamps internally as UTC, so ConvertTimezone is used with UTC
4514            # set for source_tz to transpile the time conversion before the STRING cast
4515            this = exp.ConvertTimezone(
4516                source_tz=exp.Literal.string("UTC"), target_tz=zone, timestamp=this
4517            )
4518
4519        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR))
def median_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Median):
4521    def median_sql(self, expression: exp.Median):
4522        if not self.SUPPORTS_MEDIAN:
4523            return self.sql(
4524                exp.PercentileCont(this=expression.this, expression=exp.Literal.number(0.5))
4525            )
4526
4527        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4529    def overflowtruncatebehavior_sql(self, expression: exp.OverflowTruncateBehavior) -> str:
4530        filler = self.sql(expression, "this")
4531        filler = f" {filler}" if filler else ""
4532        with_count = "WITH COUNT" if expression.args.get("with_count") else "WITHOUT COUNT"
4533        return f"TRUNCATE{filler} {with_count}"
def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4535    def unixseconds_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixSeconds) -> str:
4536        if self.SUPPORTS_UNIX_SECONDS:
4537            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4538
4539        start_ts = exp.cast(
4540            exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01 00:00:00+00"), to=exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ
4541        )
4542
4543        return self.sql(
4544            exp.TimestampDiff(this=expression.this, expression=start_ts, unit=exp.var("SECONDS"))
4545        )
def arraysize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArraySize) -> str:
4547    def arraysize_sql(self, expression: exp.ArraySize) -> str:
4548        dim = expression.expression
4549
4550        # For dialects that don't support the dimension arg, we can safely transpile it's default value (1st dimension)
4551        if dim and self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED is None:
4552            if not (dim.is_int and dim.name == "1"):
4553                self.unsupported("Cannot transpile dimension argument for ARRAY_LENGTH")
4554            dim = None
4555
4556        # If dimension is required but not specified, default initialize it
4557        if self.ARRAY_SIZE_DIM_REQUIRED and not dim:
4558            dim = exp.Literal.number(1)
4559
4560        return self.func(self.ARRAY_SIZE_NAME, expression.this, dim)
def attach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Attach) -> str:
4562    def attach_sql(self, expression: exp.Attach) -> str:
4563        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4564        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4565        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
4566        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4567
4568        return f"ATTACH{exists_sql} {this}{expressions}"
def detach_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Detach) -> str:
4570    def detach_sql(self, expression: exp.Detach) -> str:
4571        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4572        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
4573
4574        return f"DETACH{exists_sql} {this}"
def attachoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AttachOption) -> str:
4576    def attachoption_sql(self, expression: exp.AttachOption) -> str:
4577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4578        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4579        value = f" {value}" if value else ""
4580        return f"{this}{value}"
def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4582    def featuresattime_sql(self, expression: exp.FeaturesAtTime) -> str:
4583        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
4584        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Table):
4585            this_sql = f"TABLE {this_sql}"
4586
4587        return self.func(
4588            "FEATURES_AT_TIME",
4589            this_sql,
4590            expression.args.get("time"),
4591            expression.args.get("num_rows"),
4592            expression.args.get("ignore_feature_nulls"),
4593        )
def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4595    def watermarkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.WatermarkColumnConstraint) -> str:
4596        return (
4597            f"WATERMARK FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
4598        )
def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4600    def encodeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.EncodeProperty) -> str:
4601        encode = "KEY ENCODE" if expression.args.get("key") else "ENCODE"
4602        encode = f"{encode} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4603
4604        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
4605        if properties:
4606            encode = f"{encode} {self.properties(properties)}"
4607
4608        return encode
def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4610    def includeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IncludeProperty) -> str:
4611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4612        include = f"INCLUDE {this}"
4613
4614        column_def = self.sql(expression, "column_def")
4615        if column_def:
4616            include = f"{include} {column_def}"
4617
4618        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
4619        if alias:
4620            include = f"{include} AS {alias}"
4621
4622        return include
def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLElement) -> str:
4624    def xmlelement_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLElement) -> str:
4625        name = f"NAME {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
4626        return self.func("XMLELEMENT", name, *expression.expressions)
def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4628    def partitionbyrangeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangeProperty) -> str:
4629        partitions = self.expressions(expression, "partition_expressions")
4630        create = self.expressions(expression, "create_expressions")
4631        return f"PARTITION BY RANGE {self.wrap(partitions)} {self.wrap(create)}"
def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic) -> str:
4633    def partitionbyrangepropertydynamic_sql(
4634        self, expression: exp.PartitionByRangePropertyDynamic
4635    ) -> str:
4636        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
4637        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4638
4639        every = expression.args["every"]
4640        if isinstance(every, exp.Interval) and every.this.is_string:
4641            every.this.replace(exp.Literal.number(every.name))
4642
4643        return f"START {self.wrap(start)} END {self.wrap(end)} EVERY {self.wrap(self.sql(every))}"
def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4645    def unpivotcolumns_sql(self, expression: exp.UnpivotColumns) -> str:
4646        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
4647        values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4648
4649        return f"NAME {name} VALUE {values}"
def xmltable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.XMLTable) -> str:
4651    def xmltable_sql(self, expression: exp.XMLTable) -> str:
4652        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4653        passing = self.expressions(expression, key="passing")
4654        passing = f"{self.sep()}PASSING{self.seg(passing)}" if passing else ""
4655        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns")
4656        columns = f"{self.sep()}COLUMNS{self.seg(columns)}" if columns else ""
4657        by_ref = f"{self.sep()}RETURNING SEQUENCE BY REF" if expression.args.get("by_ref") else ""
4658        return f"XMLTABLE({self.sep('')}{self.indent(this + passing + by_ref + columns)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"